導(dǎo)語：如何才能寫好一篇讀讀看，這就需要搜集整理更多的資料和文獻(xiàn)，歡迎閱讀由公務(wù)員之家整理的十篇范文，供你借鑒。

篇1

“讓我挑選自己喜歡看的書”

孩子成長需要一個良好寬松的心理環(huán)境，然而在現(xiàn)實(shí)生活中，不少家長對孩子的期望太高，管得太死，不僅影響了孩子的全面發(fā)展，也影響了孩子的身心健康。通過調(diào)查我們發(fā)現(xiàn)，有40%以上的同學(xué)最喜歡家長給予他們一個自由寬松的閱讀氛圍。

“讓我們自愿、讓我們自愿！”“讓我挑選自己喜歡看的書”“讓我隨心所欲地看，能看多少就看多少”……一句句簡潔的話語道出了孩子的心聲。從中我們不難看出：一些家長在要求孩子讀書的時候，沒有考慮孩子的個人感受，一味地將閱讀作為任務(wù)強(qiáng)加給孩子，以致孩子產(chǎn)生逆反心理。例如：一些家長為了孩子能寫出好作文，提高作文水平，一味地讓孩子看作文范本、背優(yōu)美文句等急功近利的做法，嚴(yán)重?fù)p害了孩子的閱讀積極性。

我們要將閱讀的自由還給孩子，在書的選擇上尊重孩子的興趣。

教給孩子的讀書方法就有獨(dú)到之處。他認(rèn)為引導(dǎo)孩子讀書，第一要讀經(jīng)典，第二“一書不盡，不讀新書”，第三就是要培養(yǎng)個人的讀書興趣與方向。在第三點(diǎn)上，曾老先生做得特別好。老大曾紀(jì)澤不喜歡科舉考試，不喜歡八股文，喜歡西方的語言學(xué)和社會學(xué)，就鼓勵他按自己的興趣方向去讀書。對于老二曾紀(jì)鴻，就更是這樣了，他努力培養(yǎng)曾紀(jì)鴻研究數(shù)學(xué)的興趣?？磥?，對書的愛好因人而異，有人喜歡大江東去的豪邁，也有人喜歡小橋流水的細(xì)膩。不要逼著孩子讀他不喜歡的書，否則就會適得其反，造成孩子對書的厭惡。

當(dāng)然，給孩子預(yù)留充足的閱讀時間也是很有必要的。英國著名青少年文學(xué)大師艾登·錢伯斯認(rèn)為，在所有影響閱讀的因素中，閱讀時間是第一位的。所以，家里要留出固定的閱讀時間。比如每次作業(yè)完成之后，每個雙休日的下午，每次睡覺之前，讓孩子持續(xù)、安靜地閱讀半個小時。這樣，到時間就閱讀，幼小的心靈沉浸在另一個世界里，久而久之，就會形成閱讀習(xí)慣，把閱讀當(dāng)成樂趣。

“與爸媽一起讀書的方法我最容易接受”

孩子的模仿能力是很強(qiáng)的，孩子和父母一起讀書，甚至一起讀一本書，交流感受，可以讓書香洋溢整個家庭。在調(diào)查過程中，我們發(fā)現(xiàn)，有25%的孩子喜歡親子共讀?！鞍职帜靡粋€小時出來，跟我一起閱讀一本書，給我講解一些我不懂的詞，這種方法我最容易接受?！薄芭c媽媽一起讀書，一起思考的方法我最容易接受?！焙⒆觽冎毖圆恢M，道出了自己的心聲。令人欣喜的是：家長們也認(rèn)為，親子共讀是培養(yǎng)孩子讀書興趣的重要方式之一，真是不謀而合。

看看孩子們描寫的親子閱讀的場面吧。

幸福一刻

六（11）班 朱新桐

我一直愛看書，經(jīng)常為書和爸媽進(jìn)行溝通交流，我清楚地記得，就因?yàn)槟谴螠贤?，讓我愛上了文言小說。

晚上，我拿出了爸爸極力推薦的《三國演義》，聽說其中“溫酒斬華雄”挺精彩的，欲拜讀拜讀?？戳税胩欤蚴俏难晕?，所以對文章情節(jié)也只是略知一二，問題卻“溢”滿腦海。我找來看報(bào)的爸爸，問：“既然關(guān)云長武功了得，為何不直接寫他與華雄的武打場面，這樣讀起來不更膾炙人口嗎？”爸爸推了推眼鏡，說：“這里面其實(shí)寫了‘其酒尚溫’，簡單一個‘尚’字，就形象地把關(guān)云長的武功高強(qiáng)體現(xiàn)出來。古文的魅力就是在這簡潔精練，耐人尋味上，你可要好好品味品味??！”我恍然大悟，對老爸擁有如此淵博的知識感到敬佩，贊道：“嗯，言之有理，言之有理，小女實(shí)在佩服，佩服??！”父女倆的歡聲笑語回蕩在屋內(nèi)，這和諧美好的畫面讓我覺得快樂，幸福。

幸福一刻

五（11）班 劉菲雅

星期天的午休，是我和媽媽一小時的親子共讀書時間。

今天，我們并肩坐在柔軟的沙發(fā)上。我拿起《小公主》津津有味地品讀起來，有趣而富有詩意的文字緊緊吸引著我們的眼球，我的心情也隨著主人公的喜怒哀樂變化著。

正當(dāng)我沉浸在故事里，媽媽突然發(fā)問：“你怎么看書中的主人公？”我心里早已經(jīng)有答案，不假思索脫口而出：“她是一個敢于同惡人做斗爭的好女孩?！眿寢寘s反駁道：“我認(rèn)為她是一個有同情心的女孩?！边@個問題搞得我們爭論不休，最后我“一錘定音”：“她是一個好女孩?！眿寢屝α恕！皩?，我們雖然表達(dá)不一樣，但有異曲同工之妙?！蔽矣幸环N前所未有的勝利感。

溫馨的60分鐘很快就過去了，我回味著那幸福的時光，我覺得我和媽媽真是心有靈犀一點(diǎn)通??！

事實(shí)證明：如果能有一位值得信賴的、很有經(jīng)驗(yàn)的成年閱讀者幫助和示范，孩子會讀得更多更流暢。共同討論可以是隨機(jī)的，飯桌上，散步時，逛超市，都可以討論。討論作品的人物，討論作品透露的信息，討論作者的語言等等。實(shí)際上，孩子在跟你交流的時候，他在回憶、整理、思考。孩子讀書時的體會、快樂和你分享，孩子獲得了精神的愉悅，表現(xiàn)欲得到了滿足，這對提高孩子的閱讀興趣是大有裨益的。

“入睡前輪流朗讀我最容易接受”

調(diào)查中，還有些孩子提到：最喜歡的就是“聽爸爸、媽媽、老師講故事，講到處故意‘賣關(guān)子’，制造懸念，借機(jī)向我推薦這本書”的方法。這種可以激起孩子的好奇心，求知欲，很適合低、中年級學(xué)生。

讓孩子天天大聲讀書，家長孩子輪流讀給對方聽，也是孩子喜歡的方法。有16%左右的同學(xué)提出：入睡前輪流朗讀我最容易接受。美國教育家杰姆·特米里斯發(fā)明了一種閱讀啟蒙教學(xué)法，他認(rèn)為父母應(yīng)從孩子很小的時候就養(yǎng)成為孩子朗讀的習(xí)慣，每天20分鐘，持之以恒，孩子對閱讀的興趣便會在父母抑揚(yáng)頓挫的朗讀聲中漸漸產(chǎn)生，孩子會逐漸領(lǐng)悟語句結(jié)構(gòu)和詞意神韻，產(chǎn)生想讀書的愿望，并能初步具備廣泛閱讀的基礎(chǔ)。為了調(diào)動朗讀的積極性，還可以豐富朗讀的形式，比如說分角色讀，配樂朗讀，對大一點(diǎn)的孩子，也可以找他們感興趣的內(nèi)容讀給爸爸媽媽聽，他們會更加積極主動。

“爸爸讓我做讀書筆記也讓我受益很多?！薄安粍庸P墨不讀書”也是一種很好的讀書方法，同時也是一種良好的讀書習(xí)慣。特別是閱讀一些經(jīng)典文學(xué)作品的時候，一定要鼓勵孩子做讀書筆記。

“父母用鼓勵、表揚(yáng)的方法，我最容易接受”

“好孩子是夸出來的”，培養(yǎng)孩子的讀書興趣同樣需要適時溫馨的表揚(yáng)激勵。

15%左右的孩子提出：“爸媽用了一個記錄表，把我每天讀書的情況記錄下來，一周以后，表現(xiàn)好的會得到一些小獎品?！薄鞍謰層霉膭?、表揚(yáng)的方法，我最容易接受?！辈灰邌?，肯定孩子的努力吧，家長的一句贊美、一支鋼筆、一塊橡皮……對激發(fā)孩子潛力很有效果。

篇2

最近幾天，嘟嘟老是咳嗽，她的老媽心疼極了，正好她老媽今天放假，這不，一大早就向嘟嘟的班主任打電話請假了?？墒?，嘟嘟并不情愿?！皯{什么呀，上午我還有一節(jié)音樂課呢，（嘟嘟最喜歡上音樂課。）我不去，就不去！”嘟嘟撇起了小嘴。

可他老媽不吃這一套，硬是把她“拖”到了醫(yī)院。

掛完了號，到醫(yī)生那去，這都是小事，可他一聽說要打針，徹底“崩潰”了。“哇！我不要打針，不要！?。。。　?/p>

一番“肺腑之言”后，終于“感動”了醫(yī)生和老媽，可是......

嘟嘟接過藥單子后，又開始“鬼哭狼嚎”了：“媽呀，這么多藥，我何年何月才能吃完哪......”

篇3

到了黃四娘家一看，他心里暗暗地贊嘆：這花可真多?。∵@里真可以說是花的世界、花的海洋。旁邊的小路都被這密密麻麻的花給遮住了。五顏六色的花特別漂亮，白的像雪，紅的像霞，黃的像金……

花大的如碗口般，把花枝都壓彎了，小的花如豆粒般，正在含苞欲放。

當(dāng)微風(fēng)一吹，花的香氣撲鼻而來?；▍仓校隰骠嫫鹞?，久久不愿離去。

篇4

雪川是我的發(fā)小兼閨蜜，我們現(xiàn)在都在清華上大學(xué)。

十二年前，雪川的父母出了車禍，不行撒手人寰，留下八歲的雪川在世上。那時，全年級第一的雪川成績一落千丈，變成了倒數(shù)第一，性情也不如從前般活潑，變得沉默寡言，有些木訥。

身為她最好的朋友，我沒有坐視不理。我采取的方式是：讓她冷靜一會，然后讓她重拾信心，因?yàn)椤母改冈谔焐峡粗┐ǎ嘈潘麄円膊幌Ｍ┐ɡ^續(xù)消極下去。

令我沒有想到的是，兩個月后，雪川依舊消弭。我在下課的時候，決定找她談話。

“雪川，你不能一直一蹶不振下去，蘇叔叔和劉阿姨也不希望你這樣?！蔽铱嗫谄判牡膭裾f她，她卻低著頭，一語不發(fā)。“雪川，你說話呀，你以前不是一直纏著我，嘰嘰喳喳地說個不停嗎？拿出你以前的勇氣來呀！不要像個膽小鬼！不要這樣懦弱！”我說著說著，雪川的眼角竟泛起了淚光，我意識到自己剛才的言語太過犀利了。“雪川，我是為你好，你不能再這樣下去了！”我繼續(xù)說道。之后，她終于開口說話了：“我不想嗎？程姐姐，我只是，做不到。以前的我，有媽媽疼，有爸爸愛，現(xiàn)在呢？以前的我，隨隨便便都可以考一百分，現(xiàn)在的我，就算拼盡全力也只能考不及格。。。。?！薄澳憧梢該Q個角度看問題，你的爸爸媽媽雖然不在這世上了，但他們化作了你最喜歡的恒星，永遠(yuǎn)守護(hù)在你身邊吶！”雪川仿佛被我一語點(diǎn)醒，又恢復(fù)了以前的活力。

篇5

2、進(jìn)入到了的搜索引擎app的界面中，點(diǎn)擊 我的選項(xiàng)

3、進(jìn)入到了的我的界面當(dāng)中，點(diǎn)擊列表中的 設(shè)置

4、進(jìn)入到了的設(shè)置的界面當(dāng)中，點(diǎn)擊 關(guān)于我們

5、進(jìn)入到了的關(guān)于我們界面中，點(diǎn)擊 搜索引擎支付協(xié)議 的選項(xiàng)

篇6

1、闞清子拼音：kànqīngzǐ。

2、闞清子，1988年4月15日出生于黑龍江省哈爾濱市，中國內(nèi)地影視女演員。

3、2007年，闞清子進(jìn)入北京電影學(xué)院表演系本科班就讀。2009年，闞清子在民國年代劇《娘妻》飾演楊靜怡正式出道。2011年，憑借古裝言情劇《新還珠格格》中的“欣榮格格”一角而被觀眾所熟知，該劇在優(yōu)酷大劇盛典上榮獲年度十大電視劇優(yōu)秀獎。

4、2013年，闞清子憑借情感勵志劇《璀璨人生》中“腹黑女王”葉琳一角的出色發(fā)揮，使其人氣與知名度一路飆升，該劇一經(jīng)開播即數(shù)度占據(jù)全國同時段收視冠軍，后一度創(chuàng)下收視率破4%的好成績。2016年，主演了諜戰(zhàn)革命劇《麻雀》。2017年，主演了都市情感劇《如若巴黎不快樂》。2019年6月，出演諜戰(zhàn)劇《驚蟄》

（來源：文章屋網(wǎng) ）

篇7

【Key word】 English reading; Schema; interactive; process; model

【摘 要】 閱讀能力的培養(yǎng)是英語教學(xué)中重要的一環(huán)?，F(xiàn)代英語教學(xué)法認(rèn)為英語閱讀不是被動地接受信息，而是主動化、個人化、而且復(fù)雜化的過程。閱讀能力強(qiáng)的人，不僅用“自下而上”的技巧去了解文章里的單詞與句子，也善于用自身所具備的知識與經(jīng)驗(yàn)，“自上而下”地推理、預(yù)測、并分析文章。相互作用模式和圖式理論強(qiáng)調(diào)：閱讀要建立背景知識，閱讀中要訓(xùn)練推測、分析等認(rèn)知技巧。因此，本文建議：注重整體性的閱讀教學(xué)，鼓勵學(xué)生主動認(rèn)識單詞，讓學(xué)生讀完文章后自己提出問題以及謹(jǐn)慎挑選閱讀材料。

【關(guān)鍵詞】 英語閱讀；圖式；相互作用；過程；模式

1. Introduction

Reading skill is clearly one of the most important skills， in fact， in many instances around the world we may argue that reading is the most important foreign language skill， particularly in cases where learners have to read English material for their own specialist subject. In the case of education in China， the teaching of English is a major classroom activity not only because it is easier for non-English-speaking teachers to supply an English written text to be read than a spoken one to be understood， but because only reading skill plus a small amount of writing skill is required in the entrance exam which most learners wish to pass. That’s why this paper reviews articles on the research of theoretical and pedagogical issues in reading， hoping to get some inspiration and integrate it effectively into the English reading teaching.

The reading process has famously been described as a "psycholinguistic guessing game"[1] P142 in which efficient readers minimize dependence on visual detail by utilizing background knowledge to make predictions and check these against the text. In this paper， based on the analysis of Schema Theory， the paper will explore its origin， theory and guidance of schema， in the hope of providing some hints to the improvement of teaching and learning.

The paper begins this essay by showing the teaching problems in reading. In the second part of the essay the paper reviews some significant pedagogical and theoretical issues in reading， including Bottom-up Model， Top-down Model and Interactive Model. Then， the Schema Theory is introduced to suggest or accept that something is true so that it can be used as the basis for an argument or discussion and the methods of reading teaching are reviewed. In the third part of this essay the paper presents several recent approaches to teach reading， especially in English context. Finally， several recommendations are made for instructional practices based on what the writer has learned from the literature review.

2. Teaching problems in reading

Reading is an important curriculum. But the traditional teaching method used now does not keep up with the essence of the reading process. The teaching activity is mechanical and cannot meet different needs from learners with several levels and different personality types [2] P68.The main teaching problems in reading are listed as follows:

2.1 Many different contexts for reading instruction

Specialists often seek insight and possible approaches from well-established language theories and researches. However， our language theory may not be completely applied to foreign language reading process because of different situations， motivations and perspectives of foreign language readers.

The basic differences are: first， learners do not have a fully developed phonological system when they begin to read. Therefore， the Bottom-up Models that depend on the learner’s encoding of the text into phonological symbols or internal speech can not be applied directly to the process; second， learners are adolescent or adult learners already literate in native language. They have relatively highly developed native language vocabulary， syntactic knowledge， topical and rhetorical schemata， and varying native language reading strategies. Still for learners， the cultural differences can make the activation of appropriate schemata difficult. The complexity in contexts must lead researchers and teachers to be cautious with their results and with possible suggestions from native language reading contexts.

2.2 Few reading instruction curricula for text structure awareness

A number of studies have persuasively argued that learners’ awareness of formal aspects of language and genre structure enhances their comprehension and inferring ability; [3] P67 however， there are few reading instruction curricula focusing on text structure awareness as a consistent component. Nor is the ability to discuss and teach awareness of text structure well developed in a variety of teaching contexts.

2.3 The difficulty of developing as large a vocabulary in learners as in average

native language academic students

Although reading instructors recognize the importance of a large vocabulary， language skills， academic ability and background knowledge， they admit it is actually impossible for learners to compete with average native language academic students in the development of vocabulary by the end of the secondary school. And the instructors do not improve the method of teaching.

2.4 Reading a lot not being emphasized in most reading teaching

Although extensive reading is useful in learning to read and beneficial to many additional language learning， it is not the central component of reading instruction which stresses the grammar teaching. Teachers still translate all sentences one by one.

In traditional reading teaching， the reading process is described as the “Bottom-up” Model. And the reading activity is also regarded as the process of decoding written symbols， which reforms the author’s thought. So， the traditional reading teaching always emphasizes the grammar. Teachers usually ask learners prepare lessons before class through looking up new words， pronunciation， translation， synonym and so

on.[4] P67

2.5 Reading strategies not easy to be taught

The ability to use appropriate reading strategies and knowing when to use them according to different reading purposes and tasks are very crucial in reading comprehension. However， teaching learners to use strategies that are relevant to varying needs and contexts has been proven to be extremely difficult. Teachers have to make learners into strategic readers rather than teach them reading strategies， which is a major educational dilemma for contexts. [5] P99

Why do these teaching dilemmas exist? In the author’s opinion， both learners and teachers do not realize the essences of reading clearly. So we should review the theoretical and pedagogical issues in reading.

3. Theoretical and pedagogical issues in reading

Researches on reading in a second language， mainly in English as a foreign language， and efforts to improve reading instruction have remarkably grown in the last four decades， especially in the recent 20 years. The following section focuses on different visions of reading process， Schema Theory， and reading strategies.

3.1 Reading process

After collecting and observing the problems arising in the process of reading and understanding， experts and scholars both at home and abroad made plenty of study and demonstration. The following three are the most frequently referred to in reading processing， that is， Bottom-up Model， Top-down Model and Interactive Model.

3.1.1 Bottom- up model

Reading was traditionally viewed as a passive or receptive process in which the reader attempted to decode the intended meaning of the author via recognizing the letters and words as meaningful units. In bottom-up process， or text-based model reading is a process that the reader constructs the text from the smallest units: recogni-zing letters and words， working out sentence structures.[6]P51-52 Carroll defines the bottom-up approach as “ proceeds from the lowest level (the phonological level) to the highest level (the lexical level) of processing in such a way that all of the lower levels of processing operate without influence from the higher levels.” That is to say， the identification of phonemes is not affected by the lexical， syntactic or discourse levels; the retrieval of word is not affected by syntactic or discourse levels and so on. We have some to doubt that a strict Bottom-up Model will provide a comprehensive amount of how we understand language. [7] P53The reader was merely a recipient of information from the printed page and brought nothing to the text. No real interaction took place between the writer and the reader. In brief， it focuses on detailed linguistic forms instead of the meaning of the whole text.

3.1.2 Top-down Model

However， modern research on reading has found the reading process active rather than passive as well as inpidualized and complicated. Reading theorists have proposed many different visions of reading act. In top-down process， or reader-based model the reader makes guesses about the content of a text. Readers draw on their own intelligence and experience-the predictions they can make， based on the schemata they have acquired-to understand the text. [8]P54 In this process， comprehension must take place first and the identification of words comes second. In top-down process， readers use their background knowledge to work on meaning.

In the Top-down Model of reading， Smith and Goodman [9] P252-253 maintain that readers sample the textual cues， make use of redundancies， make hypotheses about what is coming next， activate background knowledge to make predictions about the ongoing discourse， and confirm (or reject) the predictions. However， poor readers are word-bound and unable to use context when they are reading. This reading process is called a “psycholinguistic model” of reading.

The influence of Goodman and Smith’s work led to a new era in reading theory. Research in reading has been done within the psycholinguistic framework. For example， the earliest psycholinguistic model of reading suggests that comprehension results from the interaction of conceptual abilities， background knowledge and process strategies. In addition， many pedagogical models， which advocate pre-reading activities to activate learners’ predicting skills， are also based on this “top-down” view of reading as a psycholinguistic process.

Recently， however， there is a reaction to the overemphasis on top-down view of reading and a reconsideration of low-level processing in context. Severe observations about the top-down view of reading have come from work by reading researchers. Smith， [10] P156 for instance， stresses that readers garner the information from the page rather than through the top-down process. Some studies in reading have found that less proficient readers are word-bound precisely because they are not yet efficient in bottom-up process. No amount of guessing will overcome this deficiency and lead to automatic word recognition. Experts also claim that readers， having weaker linguistic competence， need to attend more to “bottom-up” features than to read.

3.1.3 Interactive Model

Both the models mentioned above have their limitations. In the bottom-up process， if the learner focuses on words and sentences in the text and just prefers to

receive the message， he may misunderstand the writer. There are always dangers of mismatch. The top-down process neglects the importance of lower-level knowledge that the text requires of the reader. So， strict “top-down” theories of reading have recently been replaced in popularity by more “interactive” models of reading. Several reading researchers have found that efficient and effective readers use both top-down and bottom-up strategies operating interactively to aid comprehension. [11] P157-158

The interactive process， which emphasizes reading comprehension， is a disposing

process of language. Meanwhile， never should one overlook the importance of the use of background knowledge and reasoning. The whole process of reading should be a

process during which the bottom-to-top model and top-to-bottom model work alternatively and interact with each other. In this whole process successful readers continue to make use of cues at all levels， from graphphonic to schematic [12]. This Interactive Model reveals the importance of the schemata in the reading process.[13] Many experts and scholars both at home and abroad consider that this point of view balances the relationship between the former two models. Good reading is not a print-free guessing

Game.

3.2 Schema Theory

Schema Theory is a major issue in reading. Schema Theory is based on the notion that past experiences lead to the creation of mental frameworks that help us make sense of new experiences [14] P201， which has been found playing a very important role in reading comprehension.

Schema Theory， positing an Interactive Model of reading in which bottom-up process and top-down process of reading occur at the same time， describes how a learner’s knowledge is integrated in memory and used in higher-level comprehension process. [15] P201 The four-fold piding method roughly pides schemata into the following four categories: Linguistic Schema-the ability to use language， especially a foreign one; Content Schema-background knowledge and so on (culture， world knowledge， concepts);Organizational Schema-the structure of reading material and Strategy schema: monitoring behavior on reading process which relates to reading skills， speed， text predictions. What can we obtain from those analyses to the actual reading teaching activities? At word level， we know that the key factor in the process of reading is some key words that can make our learners understand the general idea of the text by using their already existing schemata. For those that learner-readers do not have， the pre-reading activity is absolutely needed. Teachers can ask some questions in relation to the background of the on-going listening text.

However， the pre-reading activity is only part of the solution to the problem of lacking relevant schema. The main problem lies in a good understanding on the target language culture and society. This may be seen as having a same tone in talking about translation theory， while this is the same function that plays in the fact that a good understanding of the cultures of the target-language is the base of fully understanding their languages. Before the differences between nations and countries becoming vague or disappearing， this factor works. One’s experience， after all， is limited. So there is a need for us to encourage our learners to read more about foreign culture (for example， extensive reading) and pay more attention to the differences between the foreign and the things and customs at home.

What is more important is how to stimulate learners’ schemata properly? This relates to the choice of reading text for our learners. Deep cultural related articles should be avoided to the preliminary learners and the process of reading is on the basis of step by step. On the other hand， reading skill at the hand of learners also plays an important role in the process of schema-stimulation. A good reader should be a good clue-seeker， who can get the writing purpose from small hints among sentences sensibly， who is easy to resonate with the text writer， and who is also a predictor in guessing the contents the text will show next. This stresses the reading process is an active activity， instead of a passive one. An active reader uses his or her own knowledge to perceive the intention of the reading text actively against his or her schemata and then finds out the proper connection between the two.

Of course， there are some disadvantages in recent researches of Schema Theory’s application. Now， what we talked most about the Schema Theory is the Content Schema， and of course， this is the common factor that affects the result of reading. However， the other three also have significant effects on our reading teaching， which we would not ignore. Linguistic Schema refers to the ability to use language. Organizational Schema stresses the logic form of a reading article and the Strategy Schema refers to the skills that a learner mastered. The four kinds of schemata are related with one another and the absent of one would cause the understanding inefficiently. With suitable instructions， the learners can develop the four kinds of schemata in a balanced way and only in this way could they reach the maximum result in the process of reading comprehension.

After learning the Schema Theory， we should get more realization about the objectives of reading instruction.

The reading instruction is designed to enable learners to develop basic comprehension skills so that they can read and understand texts of a general nature， to use reading to increase their general knowledge， to decide about their reading purpose and adapt their methods of reading according to this， and to develop the ability to read critically.

The reading instruction should teach basic reading comprehension skills， especially real-life reading skills such as reading for gist and reading for information， develop flexible reading skills(varied according to purpose)and critical reading skills， develop the learners’ knowledge of vocabulary or idiom， reinforce (or even) present certain grammatical features and act as a stimulus for oral or written work later on.

轉(zhuǎn)貼于 4. Recent approaches to teach reading

The following is recent approaches to teach reading:

4.1 Building background knowledge in the pre-reading phase

Schema Theory has shown that successful readers use prior knowledge of the content of the text to aid comprehension. Therefore， a recent approach to teach reading emphasizes pre-reading preparation of learners in a reading lesson plan. Working with learners before they begin reading a text helps them get more involved.[16] P78 First， learners learn background information to activate useful schemata. Understanding the text’s beginning， learners can then recognize textual landmarks as they meet them. Then， confident learners are more likely to take risks in guessing words’ meanings and anticipate text content. They will be better strategy users while they read. Just as Tierney and Pearson put on the top of the eight suggestions for improving classroom practices， “Be sure to find out your students’ prior knowledge of the topic and text genre before beginning to read，” intelligent selection and preparation before reading can make our students’ reading more efficient and enjoyable.

4.2 Teaching met cognitive skills while reading

The persity of the cognitive process in action as learners read， as well as learners’ awareness of them can be used during the reading act to develop comprehension. The identification of mentalistic functions through the use of self-reflection procedures can facilitate the reading process. In the study of Rod Ellis [17] P86-87， learners， after being trained to “self-observe” and to “think-aloud”， became aware of inefficient processing habits and were able to replace them with strategies that had been taught to them in class.

Teaching the skill of contextual guessing may improve reading comprehension and speed.

4.3 Using cloze to teach reading

The great value of the cloze procedure in language testing has long been recognized. Since using cloze for the teaching of reading gives learners practice in the essential skill of guessing from context， the development of the ability to guess meaning from context is seen as the key to successful reading. This context includes not only the words on the page， but also the reader’s language knowledge about the subject matter of the text being read. By deleting words from a passage on a regular basis， cloze trains learners’ guessing strategies， thus allowing learners， then teachers， and their peers a chance to help learners increase their guessing ability. This increased ability may lead to greater comprehension and also to faster reading speed. Reading speed accelerates because better guessing skill means readers need to spend less time decoding words.

Although the reading teaching has been improved recently， many learners still have difficulty in applying the reading skills while they are reading. We can find it from some examples of English text in postgraduate entrance examination.

2004 Text 2[18] P116

Over the past century， all kinds of unfairness and discrimination have been condemned or made illegal. But one insidious form continues to thrive: alphabetism. This， for those as yet unaware of such a disadvantage， refers to discrimination against those whose surnames begin with a letter in the lower half of the alphabet.

It has long been known that a taxi firm called AAAA cars has a big advantage over Zodiac cars when customers thumb through their phone directories. Less well known is the advantage that Adam Abbott has in life over Zo? Zysman. English names are fairly evenly spread between the halves of the alphabet. Yet a suspiciously large number of top people have surnames beginning with letters between A and K.

Thus the American president and vice-president have surnames starting with B and C respectively; and 26 of George Bush’s predecessors (including his father) had surnames in the first half of the alphabet against just 16 in the second half. Even more striking， six of the seven heads of government of the G7 rich countries are alphabetically advantaged (Berlusconi， Blair， Bush， Chirac， Chrétien and Koizumi). The world’s three top central bankers (Greenspan， Duisenberg and Hayami) are all close to the top of the alphabet， even if one of them really uses Japanese characters. As are the world’s five richest men (Gates， Buffett， Allen， Ellison and Albrecht).

Can this merely be coincidence? One theory， dreamt up in all the spare time enjoyed by the alphabetically disadvantaged， is that the rot sets in early. At the start of the first year in infant school， teachers seat pupils alphabetically from the front， to make it easier to remember their names. So short-sighted Zysman junior gets stuck in the back row， and is rarely asked the improving questions posed by those insensitive teachers. At the time the alphabetically disadvantaged may think they have had a lucky escape. Yet the result may be worse qualifications， because they get less inpidual attention， as well as less confidence in speaking publicly.

The humiliation continues. At university graduation ceremonies， the ABCs proudly get their awards first; by the time they reach the Zysmans most people are literally having a ZZZ. Shortlists for job interviews， election ballot papers， lists of conference speakers and attendees: all tend to be drawn up alphabetically， and their recipients lose interest as they plough through them.

The examinee can grasp the main idea of the article through the extensive reading easily.

In the first paragraph， the sentence--But one insidious form continues to thrive: alphabetism. This， for those as yet unaware of such a disadvantage， refers to discrimination against those whose surnames begin with a letter in the lower half of the alphabet- mentions the phenomenon which the author emphasizes. If readers can realize the word “But” which is stressed obviously， then it is possible to infer that the second and third paragraphs of the article surely prove the first section through massive examples. Then the second and third paragraphs can be skip-read and does not need to be examined carefully.

Comprehending the topic sentence is a good method to hold a paragraph. When readers read the following article， if readers can hold a paragraph’s general idea through utilizing the strategy-seeking the topic sentence， then it is extremely easy to see the first sentence in the fourth paragraph--Can this merely be coincidence？， as well as the last sentence--Yet the result may be worse qualifications， because they get less inpidual attention， as well as less confidence in speaking publicly-- a transitional sentence. Readers can know the fourth paragraph is for explaining the kinds of phenomenon， its origin and the consequences it creates.

In the fifth paragraph， readers also act according to the first sentence--The humiliation continues--and extrapolate that the full text will give further example to disclose the phenomenon of alphabetism lying in human society generally.

Through the above elaboration， readers may realize we cannot read effectively just by grasping sufficient glossary and grammar knowledge， because our memory is limited. We can not take note of the macro structure of the text if we pay more attention to some partial information. [19] P102-103 But we can hold the whole text by reasonably grasping the paragraph’s structure， the skip-reading， as well as advanced reading extrapolation. Then we comprehend the whole text after reading these five topic sentences.

From the above example， we can see that the design of the examination’s questions is by no means to inspect the learner’s response to the glossary. Therefore， the key point of enhancing reading lies in the fact that learners must clearly know the essence of reading process. Learners should dare to use each reading skill to solve the problem. Only daring to attempt and attempting industriously can learners have the opportunity to experience the result. So， in the author’s opinion， taking the following recommendations can help to improve reading instruction and make the instruction depend on the learners’ needs and teaching objectives.

5. Recommendations for teaching reading

5.1 Holistic reading instruction

The research by Devine， [20] P99 clearly shows that gains on discrete point grammar and vocabulary tests correlate negatively with increasing reading proficiency. That is， if language instruction is to have a positive impact on reading performance， that instruction should be holistic or integrative rather than discrete-point skills oriented. Constant close attention to details like pronunciation， vocabulary items， and grammatical points in each sentence does not reinforce skills， which are crucial to efficient reading and comprehension. In the reading classroom， the teacher should not rely on repetition and drill of pronunciation， word identification， vocabulary and grammar structures because these activities may only prepare learners for discrete point tests instead of real reading， and will not aid learners in developing reading competence.

Holistic reading instruction should be emphasized in the teaching of English reading. The teacher should design the corresponding reading curriculum in order to train the ability of holistic reading. The essential target of the trainings that enable learners to manoeuvre the scheme knowledge they have and strengthens the ability of forecast and proving. The ability of forecast is most important. Teachers should teach learner how to find out the topic word/key word in a certain sentence and the topic sentence and topic paragraph in a certain passage.

A holistic reading instruction must be communicative， too. Therefore， the teacher should provide linguistically interesting and situationally appropriate language samples. This might be accomplished through the use of tapes， dialogues， and even carefully screened reading materials which even learners with low language proficiency can follow.

Reading tests should be holistic and integrative， too. They should require learners to use a variety of linguistic and nonlinguistic information in their attempt to understand meaning. The holistic reading instruction can combine the discourse analysis， linguistic information and ability of communication together. [21]

5.2 Reader-generated questions

Questioning has long been used in reading as a tool to facilitate comprehension or after reading in an effort to test comprehension. However， “other-imposed” type of questioning used by the writer or editor of a text， or by the teacher， interferes with the reader’s own agenda as well as with his reading pleasure. David Nunan[22]P99also remarks that teacher-generated questions tend to weaken the learners’ comprehension since the learners’ course evaluation often depends more on their answers than on their comprehension. These findings suggest that the traditional question approach limits learners’ comprehension by having them comprehend only what the questions ask for， the implication being that readers comprehend in a different manner and more naturally when questions are not imposed by others.

5.3 Encouragement of the automaticity of word recognition

Automaticity of word recognition is what foreign language readers are lack of. Therefore， teachers should have learners read as much as possible to develop automaticity. The role of extensive reading is crucial in this respect.

Learners need to read extensively. Longer concentrated periods of silent reading build vocabulary and structural awareness， develop automaticity， enhance background knowledge， improve comprehension skills and promote confidence and motivation. In short， learners learn to read by reading a lot.

5.4 Careful selection of reading materials

Teachers must treat beginning and advanced learners differently as they approach reading materials. Widdowson [23] P135 advocates that preparation to read authentic materials must begin at the intermediate level. Besides， experts [24] P135 find that the more hierarchical the organization of a text， the better the comprehension， recall， and retention of readers. Therefore， teachers should select texts with a very obvious rhetorical organization to cater to learners’ need for clarity. Examples of such discourse patterns in English might be problem-soluting， comparison， and cause-effect expository formats.

Widdowson[25] P135advocates “narrow reading” as another means of selecting text. He argues that the more familiar the reader is with the text， the more comprehension is facilitated. Teachers can develop both reading comprehension and learner self-confidence by giving learners the opportunity to narrow their reading choices to several texts by the same author or dealing with the same context matter.

6. Conclusion

The instruction of reading has often been the main activity in many English contexts. Reviewing so much theoretical issues and instructional literature in reading， understanding the strength and weakness of various approaches to teach reading， and realizing some teaching problems in reading context， the author recommends the reading curriculum should become a learner-centred curriculum. The holistic reading instruction and cognitive skills should be emphasized while reading. The recommendations made here may not be sufficient to meet all the instructional needs of reading. But， it can tell us to realize that the English teacher’s responsibility is to get learners to read as much as possible effectively and enjoyably.

Bibliography

[1] 樓青 英語閱讀模式與自主閱讀能力的培養(yǎng)[J]。 零陵學(xué)院學(xué)報(bào)，2005，（1）

Goodman KS. Reading; A Psycholinguistic Guessing Games[J] Journal of the Reading Specialist 1967

[2] 沈錦坤 任務(wù)型教學(xué)法在大學(xué)英語閱讀教學(xué)中的應(yīng)用[J] 中國成人教育，2005，（3）

[3] 晏微微 吳兵樂 教師在大學(xué)英語閱讀策略訓(xùn)練中的作用[J] 四川教育學(xué)院學(xué)報(bào)， 2005（3）

[4] 同[2]

[5] Devine， J，P. The effects of rhetorical organization on ESL readers. TESOL Quarterly， 18.1984

[6] 謝徐萍 相互作用模式及其外語閱讀教學(xué)的啟示[J]。高教探索，2005（3）

[7] David W. Carroll Psychology of Language[M]. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press Heinle ＆ Heinle/Thomson Learning Asia 2000

[8] 同[7]

[9] David Nunan Second Language Teaching and Learning [M] Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press Heinle ＆ Heinle/Thomson Learning Asia 2001

[10] 胡春洞 戴忠信 英語閱讀論[M] 廣西教育出版社 1998

[11] 同[10]

[12] 葛炳芳res.qzhi.com.cn/detail/632763173150000000/213001.html [Z]

[13] Nunan. D， Designing Tasks for the communicative classroom.[M] Cambridge University Press

[14] 同[9]

[15] 同[9]

[16] 鄔穗萍 運(yùn)用圖式理論提高學(xué)生英語閱讀水平[J] 成都行政學(xué)院學(xué)報(bào)，

2005，（12）

[17] Rod Ellis Second Language Acquisition[M] 上海外語教育出版社，2005

[18] 考研命題研究組 張劍 歷年考研英語{新大綱修訂版}真題解析及復(fù)習(xí)

思路[Z] 新華出版社，2005

[19] 羅錢軍 語篇宏觀結(jié)構(gòu)分析在閱讀理解中的應(yīng)用[J] 祈州師范學(xué)院學(xué)報(bào) 2005，（4）

[20] Devine， J.P. Carrel， and E Eskey (eds). 1987 Research in Reading in English as a Second Language.[M] Wshington， DC; Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages.

[21] 同[12]

[22] David Nunan The Learner-Centred Curriculum[M] 上海外語教育出版2001

[23] 束定芳 莊智象 現(xiàn)代外語教學(xué)-理論，實(shí)踐與方法[M] 上海外語教育出版社 1996

[24] 同[23]

篇8

關(guān)鍵詞: 英語報(bào)刊閱讀 輔助教學(xué) 教學(xué)模式

一、高中英語教學(xué)開發(fā)閱讀報(bào)刊英語資源的必要性

目前,英語課堂教學(xué)主要圍繞教材展開,信息量少,語言輸入有限,不利于知識的擴(kuò)展,也跟不上當(dāng)前高考對學(xué)生詞匯量的要求。從高考來看,試卷涵蓋大量詞匯,因此要閱讀有關(guān)現(xiàn)代生活、社會、文化、科技的文章,提高獲取信息和處理信息的能力。而制約學(xué)生閱讀能力的關(guān)鍵就在于詞匯量的不足及接近現(xiàn)代生活的閱讀材料的匱乏。因此,多渠道擴(kuò)大學(xué)生的閱讀量和詞匯量迫在眉睫。其次,從多方面調(diào)查來看,教師手中的閱讀材料往往陳舊過時、跟不上時代的步伐,題材也較為狹窄。而《21世紀(jì)英文版中學(xué)生報(bào)》圖文并茂,內(nèi)容豐富多彩、富有時代氣息,貼近學(xué)生的實(shí)際、貼近生活、貼近社會,符合中學(xué)生年齡、心理特征,有利于開拓學(xué)生的視野和激發(fā)學(xué)生的閱讀興趣。因此,我們將它作為課堂教學(xué)的輔助閱讀材料。

二、英語報(bào)刊閱讀輔助英語閱讀課教學(xué)的可行性

(一)新課標(biāo)的要求

《中學(xué)英語課程標(biāo)準(zhǔn)》對英語報(bào)刊閱讀課提出了要求學(xué)生能閱讀適合高中生的英語報(bào)刊和雜志和能閱讀一般的英文報(bào)刊和雜志?，F(xiàn)行教材中閱讀課都是精讀課,而泛讀是對精讀有力的補(bǔ)充。它既能激發(fā)學(xué)生的閱讀興趣,又能擴(kuò)大其詞匯量,使其了解英語國家的文化背景知識。兩者結(jié)合起來才能真正提高學(xué)生的綜合語言運(yùn)用能力。

(二)高考的閱讀測試對學(xué)生的要求

高考閱讀體裁多樣,內(nèi)容豐富,且具有一定的實(shí)用性。它注重考查學(xué)生運(yùn)用英語的實(shí)際能力。例如,高考文章里的長難句及一定的生詞量、涉及西方文化信息的增多,這客觀要求學(xué)生的綜合能力。

三、利用報(bào)刊輔助閱讀的模式

(一)課上活用

1.讀。我們每周利用課上10分鐘進(jìn)行趣味閱讀,同時進(jìn)行限時閱讀,因?yàn)樗桥囵B(yǎng)學(xué)生閱讀技巧和策略的土壤。(1)略讀,培養(yǎng)學(xué)生的歸納和概括的能力。(2)跳讀,使學(xué)生快速查找特定信息和細(xì)節(jié);(3)細(xì)讀,培養(yǎng)學(xué)生分析長難句和猜詞的能力,對文章進(jìn)行深層理解;(4)精讀,要求學(xué)生根據(jù)背景知識對文章篇章結(jié)構(gòu)有準(zhǔn)確的把握。

2.說。設(shè)計(jì)學(xué)生討論任務(wù),如:上海世博會的召開對中國有何意義?從而提高學(xué)生的閱讀分析能力和口語表達(dá)能力。

3.寫。通過報(bào)紙材料閱讀進(jìn)行寫作也是一個重要的手段。首先可讓學(xué)生摘抄美句、美段和美文進(jìn)行背誦,再要求學(xué)生仿寫、改寫和縮寫。有時也可對熱門話題自由寫作。最后以小組形式評選出優(yōu)質(zhì)作品展出。

(二)課外巧用

英語教育的任務(wù)不僅是傳授英語知識和技能,更重要的是讓學(xué)生掌握學(xué)習(xí)英語的方法,培養(yǎng)他們的終身學(xué)習(xí)能力和習(xí)慣。課堂10分鐘的報(bào)刊閱讀目的在于起拋磚引玉的作用,引導(dǎo)學(xué)生長久地堅(jiān)持自主閱讀報(bào)刊的習(xí)慣。為了及時了解和督促學(xué)生報(bào)刊閱讀的進(jìn)展情況,我們從以下幾個方面著手。

1.建立閱讀檔案

建立閱讀檔案不僅是學(xué)生個人的閱讀過程記錄,也是教師了解學(xué)生自主閱讀的一個重要途徑。如個人閱讀調(diào)查(What I know about reading):每周閱讀后,要求學(xué)生寫出個人閱讀小結(jié),匯報(bào)閱讀情況,形成對自己報(bào)刊閱讀過程的形成性評價。

2.報(bào)刊內(nèi)容摘抄

報(bào)刊內(nèi)容摘抄包括:useful words and expressions,good sentences,key words,summary for a certain passage。

以上學(xué)生個人報(bào)刊閱讀檔案每周一交由老師過目,及時了解、評價并解答,提出進(jìn)一步的要求,同時也為小組討論提供了內(nèi)容。

3.成立閱讀學(xué)習(xí)小組

建立閱讀學(xué)習(xí)小組促進(jìn)學(xué)生之間互相溝通,凈化學(xué)生的閱讀心理環(huán)境,取長補(bǔ)短,形成健康的英語閱讀心理機(jī)構(gòu)。7人為一組,選出一組長。教師在閱讀之前,提出學(xué)習(xí)目標(biāo)和自學(xué)目標(biāo),每小組一周內(nèi)采取組內(nèi)成員輪流提問形式,小組長把各組員的問題總結(jié)起來,大家一起思考討論,最后各小組長匯總不能解決的問題,以便在組際交流時解決這些問題。教師先讓比較成熟的小組代表發(fā)言,匯報(bào)該組的總體情況并提出疑難,其他學(xué)生暢所欲言,各抒己見。這樣,不僅每一位學(xué)生都可以盡情地交換各自的看法,提高自學(xué)能力和分析判斷等思維能力,而且學(xué)生的語言技能提高了,學(xué)習(xí)潛能和創(chuàng)造力也得到了發(fā)揮。學(xué)生也從小組合作中培養(yǎng)了團(tuán)結(jié)協(xié)作精神。

四、定期評價制度

教師根據(jù)報(bào)刊內(nèi)容每兩周對學(xué)生進(jìn)行跟蹤測試或競賽,測試競賽內(nèi)容包括詞匯檢測、報(bào)刊內(nèi)容填空、句子結(jié)構(gòu)分析、難句翻譯、文章縮寫、段落中心歸納、朗讀競賽等,內(nèi)容豐富多彩,多方面檢測學(xué)生各種能力,并對結(jié)果認(rèn)真分析,作出恰當(dāng)?shù)姆e極的評價,讓學(xué)生意識到自己在學(xué)習(xí)過程中取得的進(jìn)步和受到的激勵,建立自信心和培養(yǎng)成就感,從而愈發(fā)提高他們的報(bào)刊閱讀興趣。我們根據(jù)學(xué)生每周上交的閱讀筆記,小組閱讀檢查表格、檢測的成績反饋及個人平時的解決問題能力等,對每個學(xué)生進(jìn)行綜合評價,評出閱讀超人和能手,以此促進(jìn)學(xué)生更加滿懷信心地投入到進(jìn)一步的閱讀中。

五、結(jié)語

許多教師擔(dān)心,讓學(xué)生進(jìn)行大量的報(bào)刊閱讀會影響學(xué)生的升學(xué)和畢業(yè)考試。實(shí)踐證明,報(bào)刊閱讀是很好的課程資源和課堂教學(xué)的延伸。如果在教學(xué)中能夠增加富有時代氣息的閱讀材料,指導(dǎo)學(xué)生進(jìn)行廣泛閱讀,那么,學(xué)生的語言綜合能力和閱讀能力必然會得到提高。通過一年多的報(bào)刊閱讀探索和實(shí)踐,我們發(fā)現(xiàn),有90%以上的學(xué)生對報(bào)刊閱讀發(fā)生濃厚的興趣,分析句子能力、閱讀速度、欣賞水平大大提高,學(xué)生的閱讀興趣和能力已經(jīng)上升到一個比較高的檔次。利用《21世紀(jì)英文報(bào)》定期閱讀,一方面保證了學(xué)生的閱讀量;另一方面滿足了學(xué)生閱讀各種題材和體裁文章的需要,同時擴(kuò)大了其知識面,提高了其參與閱讀訓(xùn)練的熱情。對英語感興趣的學(xué)生比率由原來不足50%上升到90%。我們相信,長此堅(jiān)持,定將達(dá)到甚至超過新課程標(biāo)準(zhǔn)對學(xué)生閱讀能力和詞匯量的要求,迅速適應(yīng)新高考的步伐。

參考文獻(xiàn):

[1]普通高級中學(xué)英語課程標(biāo)準(zhǔn)(實(shí)驗(yàn)稿).人民教育出版社,2003.

[2]康美華.巧用英文報(bào)刊,優(yōu)化閱讀教學(xué).福州教育出版社,2003.

[3]張志遠(yuǎn),董啟明.全國中學(xué)英語報(bào)刊閱讀教學(xué)論叢.北京大學(xué)出版社,2005.

篇9

摘 要 制度經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)為深入研究公司治理問題奠定了理論基礎(chǔ)，包括契約理論、交易費(fèi)用理論和現(xiàn)代產(chǎn)權(quán)理論等。本文主要從制度經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)的角度分析了影響公司治理效率的因素和我國現(xiàn)階段治理效率不高的制度性原因，并嘗試從中總結(jié)并給出了一些切實(shí)可行的改進(jìn)建議。

關(guān)鍵詞 公司治理效率 制度性因素 制度缺陷 交叉持股

現(xiàn)代企業(yè)制度核心是建立規(guī)范的公司治理機(jī)制，“公司治理”也成為近百年的主題詞之一。而對于公司治理究竟是什么，現(xiàn)有理論研究并沒有給出無可爭辯的答案。而且，源于公司治理研究方法及研究對象本身都已經(jīng)發(fā)生翻天覆地的變化，“股東利益至上”與“利益相關(guān)者”的爭論也未曾停歇，也引發(fā)我們的思考：能否尋找新的視角來對公司治理做出更貼切的解釋和整合？本文試圖從制度經(jīng)濟(jì)角度得出一些啟發(fā)。

一、公司治理機(jī)制中的制度性因素

新制度經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)有觀點(diǎn)認(rèn)為：制度是重要的且是可以進(jìn)行分析的，恰當(dāng)?shù)闹贫劝才庞兄诮档蛷?fù)雜系統(tǒng)中的協(xié)調(diào)成本，限制并可能消除人們之間的沖突。在復(fù)雜的社會系統(tǒng)中，大量的社會和經(jīng)濟(jì)生活是由內(nèi)在制度規(guī)范的，但適當(dāng)?shù)耐庠谥贫瓤梢愿玫貙?shí)現(xiàn)內(nèi)在制度的目標(biāo)，并有助于推動其向與外部政治經(jīng)濟(jì)環(huán)境更為協(xié)調(diào)的方向演進(jìn)。高效公司治理需要的外在制度應(yīng)該是設(shè)計(jì)規(guī)范、精細(xì)，有懲罰性條款，并能被強(qiáng)制執(zhí)行的正式制度。同時，穩(wěn)定性的外在制度還必須具有前瞻性，代表未來發(fā)展方向。

二、影響我國公司治理效率提高的制度缺陷

我國是在20世紀(jì)90年代提出的現(xiàn)代企業(yè)制度，一出現(xiàn)就有了“一股就靈”的傾向，各個企業(yè)爭相改制上市。但低層次的簡單“復(fù)制”并沒有給其公司治理帶來預(yù)期的深層次變化。按理說，上市公司應(yīng)是企業(yè)中的佼佼者，但顯然在滬深交易所掛牌交易的一千多家公司中真正的績優(yōu)股卻只是鳳毛麟角。

一方面，國內(nèi)的公司治理相關(guān)的法律法規(guī)明顯存在諸多缺陷?！靶滩豢芍豢蓽y”，自上而下的外在制度永遠(yuǎn)是正式的，對違反制度的行為必然有強(qiáng)制性懲罰。我國目前立法還不能將高管人員真正置于民事責(zé)任的約束之下，缺乏相關(guān)的民事賠償制度等，僅靠行政處罰既不具威懾力，又不能給受損投資者以補(bǔ)償，導(dǎo)致中小股東的利益得不到保障；法律法規(guī)對上市公司退市機(jī)制強(qiáng)制力不夠，致使監(jiān)管中寬容傾向泛濫。

另一方面，更為嚴(yán)重的是，我國市場經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展歷史較短，高效的公司治理所需的內(nèi)在制度同樣存在先天不足。在我國，正是缺乏這種與提高公司治理效率密切相關(guān)的文化傳統(tǒng)的軟環(huán)境，主要表現(xiàn)在：首先，我國缺乏強(qiáng)制執(zhí)行和主動遵循的文化傳統(tǒng)。這種文化傳統(tǒng)一方面強(qiáng)調(diào)執(zhí)法者必須強(qiáng)制執(zhí)行已有正式制度，培育市場主體對規(guī)則的信任。另一方面強(qiáng)調(diào)市場經(jīng)濟(jì)主體對法律法規(guī)的主動服從和遵循，實(shí)現(xiàn)外在制度內(nèi)在化，提高執(zhí)行效率。其次，是我國缺乏健康的股權(quán)文化。一股獨(dú)大和公司治理水平低是我國公司普遍并存現(xiàn)象，但是這并不意味著他們之間就有必然和內(nèi)在的因果關(guān)系。再次，密切相關(guān)的是我國尚未形成有效的誠信機(jī)制。外無強(qiáng)制執(zhí)行的文化傳統(tǒng)，內(nèi)無健康的股權(quán)文化，公司管理者很難有主動服從法律規(guī)范的壓力和動力，給予了制度的具體執(zhí)行者更大的相機(jī)抉擇權(quán)力，也使其機(jī)會主義行為找到了滋生的土壤。

三、解決現(xiàn)存制度缺陷的一些建議

在今后改進(jìn)公司治理效率的過程中，必須注意以下幾點(diǎn)：

1．要健全股東會、董事會、監(jiān)事會和經(jīng)理層，各自職責(zé)清晰，依法運(yùn)作為了讓股東會、董事會和經(jīng)理之間職責(zé)清晰。發(fā)達(dá)國家公司法中基本沒有像我國公司法這樣分別對股東大會、董事會和經(jīng)理權(quán)力作出列舉的。我們必須從這種“分家分權(quán)”式的思維中跳出來。

2．全流通和整體上市可以完善公司治理。通過股權(quán)分置改革實(shí)現(xiàn)股份全流通，在打通通過資本市場改進(jìn)公司治理的通道上向前邁進(jìn)了重要一步，但是全流通本身并不能直接改進(jìn)公司治理。通過整體上市，消滅上市公司與其母公司之間的關(guān)聯(lián)交易，來完善公司治理。保證公平交易的治理機(jī)制，關(guān)鍵是法律上確定控股股東、董事和高管的“公平交易義務(wù)”。

3．交叉持股可以改進(jìn)公司治理。多個友好企業(yè)之間交叉持股，長期持有，目的是抵御“外敵”，加強(qiáng)管理層對公司的控制。從股東價值導(dǎo)向的現(xiàn)代公司治理角度來看，這種交叉持股恰恰是阻礙公司治理，而不是改進(jìn)公司治理的。

通過以上分析可以看出外在制度的缺陷與內(nèi)在制度的先天不足造成了我國公司治理效率的低下。從某種意義上說，只有滿足了公司治理成本最小化的前提條件，才有進(jìn)一步通過市場機(jī)制提高公司治理效率的可能，否則，改進(jìn)公司治理效率無從談起。

參考文獻(xiàn)：

[1]Matthews,R. C. O. The Economics of Institutions and the Source of Economic Growth.Economic Journal.1986.96(December):903-918.

[2]柯武剛,史漫飛.制度經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué):社會秩序與公共政策.北京:商務(wù)印書館.2000.

[3]邵東亞.公司治理的機(jī)制與績效.管理世界.2003(12).

[4]李維安.公司治理教程.上海人民出版社.2002.

[5]劉漢民.所有制、制度環(huán)境與公司治理效率.經(jīng)濟(jì)研究.2002(06).

篇10

閱讀方式的演變

不同的人有不同的閱讀方式和習(xí)慣，而習(xí)慣和方式會因?yàn)榄h(huán)境和技術(shù)產(chǎn)品的變化而改變，隨著印刷業(yè)的發(fā)展和信息的海量增長，人們的閱讀方式在不斷地調(diào)整，相應(yīng)的閱讀行為和閱讀場所也會隨之變化，閱讀中得到的閱讀體驗(yàn)又會在一定程度上影響到閱讀方式。當(dāng)前的閱讀方式呈現(xiàn)多元化趨勢，本文粗略將閱讀方式分為傳統(tǒng)閱讀、屏幕閱讀和智能化閱讀，這三種方式是并存的。

1.傳統(tǒng)閱讀

在電子書出現(xiàn)之前的閱讀方式，都是傳統(tǒng)的紙質(zhì)書籍閱讀。在書籍缺乏的時代，信息也傳遞得慢，常用的方式是精讀。傳統(tǒng)閱讀一般理解為功利性閱讀、深閱讀，有助于開發(fā)沉思冥想式的思維。紙質(zhì)閱讀被很多人稱之為閱讀審美享受，這種體驗(yàn)遠(yuǎn)超過其他閱讀方式。傳統(tǒng)閱讀方式的主要特點(diǎn)是紙質(zhì)媒體為必要條件。

2.屏幕閱讀

隨著數(shù)字出版的發(fā)展，人們的閱讀實(shí)現(xiàn)逐漸從紙張轉(zhuǎn)到了屏幕，數(shù)字化閱讀大幅提升了人們的閱讀量。數(shù)字書籍容量大、易于攜帶、傳播快，給人們的閱讀帶來了方便。但數(shù)字閱讀有它的不利之處，依賴于電子書的格式和排版，受制于閱讀終端（屏幕）的選擇，同時人們也普遍認(rèn)為數(shù)字化閱讀為淺閱讀，但這種觀念也在不斷變化。從傳統(tǒng)閱讀到數(shù)字閱讀最顯著的特點(diǎn)是介質(zhì)的變化：從紙質(zhì)到屏幕。

3.智能閱讀

能隨時隨地滿足閱讀的愿望是人們對閱讀的夢想，這種趨勢就是智能閱讀。在移動互聯(lián)網(wǎng)時代，時間間隔劃分越來越小，微閱讀、泛閱讀、移動閱讀等碎片化閱讀要求智能化閱讀。這種方式的最大特點(diǎn)是不受限：時間、地點(diǎn)、介質(zhì)都不受限，滿足人們的閱讀享受，達(dá)到互動。

閱讀終端發(fā)展現(xiàn)狀

電子書信息量大、更新快、交互性強(qiáng)，但它的特點(diǎn)是依附各種電子平臺，體現(xiàn)在不同的閱讀終端上。當(dāng)前的閱讀終端種類繁多，大體上可以歸為以下四類：

1.計(jì)算機(jī)——iPad

電子書的傳播形式很多，但最初是借助于互聯(lián)網(wǎng)傳播的，而計(jì)算機(jī)是數(shù)字閱讀最早的終端設(shè)備。隨著技術(shù)的提高和材料科學(xué)的發(fā)展，計(jì)算機(jī)越來越便攜，功能性的電腦逐漸出現(xiàn)，平板電腦特別是iPad的出現(xiàn)是閱讀體驗(yàn)的一場革命，支持幾乎所有的數(shù)字出版物格式，支持專業(yè)的閱讀軟件，但價格較為昂貴。

2.電子閱讀器——Kindle

Kindle的出現(xiàn)從根本上講是一種數(shù)字內(nèi)容的出版，它有自己獨(dú)特的電子書標(biāo)準(zhǔn)azw，有自己的電子書渠道，當(dāng)然它支持兼容PC的閱讀軟件和iPhone的手機(jī)閱讀軟件。Kindle采用E-ink技術(shù)，不像高亮屏幕那樣傷害視力，有數(shù)字閱讀的便捷和大容量，又有傳統(tǒng)閱讀的質(zhì)感享受，純粹用來閱讀是不錯的選擇。但E-ink的發(fā)展還有待觀察。

3.3G手機(jī)

手機(jī)閱讀將電子書的閱讀體驗(yàn)帶到了移動的環(huán)境中。這種方式能夠更為精準(zhǔn)地滿足人們的個性化閱讀需求，獲取各類信息也更為便捷。手機(jī)是當(dāng)今普及最高的終端設(shè)備，作為閱讀終端也最為便攜，支持的電子書格式也越來越豐富。但手機(jī)存在續(xù)航能力不足和屏幕尺寸偏少的問題。

4.智能電視

GoogleTV和AppleTV的推出，使得電視機(jī)成為實(shí)際意義上的訪問終端和閱讀終端。語音、手勢遙控進(jìn)行的人機(jī)交互體驗(yàn)是智能電視最顯著的特點(diǎn)，三網(wǎng)融合的發(fā)展進(jìn)一步推進(jìn)了智能電視的應(yīng)用，智能云電視的出現(xiàn)更是提供了豐富的閱讀體驗(yàn)。智能電視能從網(wǎng)絡(luò)、AV設(shè)備、PC等多種渠道獲得節(jié)目內(nèi)容，通過簡單易用的整合式操作界面，避免了其他閱讀終端操作上的復(fù)雜性。

其實(shí)，以上的分類界限如今已越來越模糊，手機(jī)在向平板電腦方向發(fā)展，平板電腦也能移動上網(wǎng)，智能電視擁有開放的平臺，那么在未來，最有可能的是：無論終端的形式是什么，搭載的系統(tǒng)是什么，運(yùn)營的內(nèi)容是什么，服務(wù)商是誰，都不再重要，重要的是它都能滿足人們的需要——呈現(xiàn)的內(nèi)容符合預(yù)期和隨時隨地上網(wǎng)以及隨時隨地閱讀。

閱讀終端發(fā)展趨勢

媒介融合的時代，數(shù)字出版的浪潮洶涌而至，作為數(shù)字內(nèi)容產(chǎn)業(yè)鏈的重要一環(huán)——閱讀終端，迎合了時代的潮流，它的發(fā)展走向會在很大程度上影響到數(shù)字出版的趨勢。

而未來的閱讀終端無論怎樣發(fā)展，它都應(yīng)該具有以下的特征：

新媒體：符合新媒體發(fā)展的特點(diǎn)，滿足層出不窮的新格式的要求。

個性化：人們的個性化需求越來越突出，對閱讀終端的需求也必定是個性化的。

標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化：閱讀終端需要移動互聯(lián)，這就需要標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，比如硬件接口、閱讀軟件API。

云屏幕：目前很多廠家提供了云服務(wù)，人們所有的數(shù)據(jù)可以集中在云端，可以分發(fā)到不同的終端，不必?fù)?dān)心終端的升級更換帶來的數(shù)據(jù)內(nèi)容的遺失。

主題閱讀：在信息泛濫的時代唯一能抓的是主題，閱讀終端要支持基于主題的檢索、歸類和劃分。

安全性：個性化的閱讀終端不僅僅是用來閱讀的內(nèi)容平臺，還可能是支付、通信等終端，包含很多的個人私密信息，它本身的安全性和移動接入的安全如何保障是一個老問題，也是新問題。

此外，高聚的功能、便攜性、續(xù)航能力、開放性都應(yīng)該是新的閱讀終端不可或缺的特點(diǎn)。

閱讀終端不僅僅是一種產(chǎn)品，也是一個窗口、一種渠道、一種內(nèi)容平臺，通過它滿足人們隨時隨地的個性化的閱讀需求，這是發(fā)展的趨勢。各廠商的盈利模式不是單純的產(chǎn)品，而是硬件+內(nèi)容，比如Amazon的Kindle就是以內(nèi)容銷售為主要利潤來源。運(yùn)營商的營銷策略也是廣做內(nèi)容，像蘋果的AppStore，數(shù)據(jù)驅(qū)動的產(chǎn)品在不斷地吞噬人們的時間，所以人們需求的是快速精準(zhǔn)的主題搜索和定位，內(nèi)容驅(qū)動才是王道。

結(jié) 語

無論閱讀終端怎么發(fā)展，總會契合人們的閱讀方式，反過來，人們的閱讀方式的變化也總會影響閱讀終端的改變。

技術(shù)和應(yīng)用日新月異，在三網(wǎng)融合、物聯(lián)網(wǎng)、云計(jì)算等新模式下，閱讀終端充當(dāng)著非常重要的角色，反過來，閱讀終端也會因?yàn)樾履Ｊ降膽?yīng)用發(fā)生很大的變化。

今天，一個芯片能裝下整個圖書館，人們的生活業(yè)已被手機(jī)、電視、電腦、閱讀器等各種屏幕所占據(jù)。當(dāng)時間被碎片化后，選擇讀什么、怎么讀是每個人面臨的新問題。無論閱讀終端如何變化，人們對閱讀本身和閱讀享受的需求不會變化，在信息海洋里，當(dāng)浮華過濾之后，沉淀下的優(yōu)質(zhì)內(nèi)容依然是人們關(guān)注的焦點(diǎn)所在。

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