茶文化的寓意范文
時間:2023-07-12 17:40:55
導(dǎo)語:如何才能寫好一篇茶文化的寓意,這就需要搜集整理更多的資料和文獻(xiàn),歡迎閱讀由公務(wù)員之家整理的十篇范文,供你借鑒。
篇1
火是人類最重要的能源。如果沒有火,人類不僅會失去物質(zhì)基礎(chǔ),也會失去心靈、精神和文明;如果沒有火,人類就不可能走出蠻荒,不可能建立文明社會。奧運火炬的寓意,來自古希臘神話傳說,是為了紀(jì)念普羅米修斯,他在烈焰熊熊的太陽車經(jīng)過時,偷到了火種并帶給了人類。火對于人類而言,就是走出野蠻,走向開放,向浩瀚的宇宙索求能量和靈魂。古希臘哲學(xué)家赫拉克利特(公元前540年—前480年)認(rèn)為萬物的本原是火,一切都在流變之中?!斑@個有秩序的宇宙對萬物都是相同的,它既不是神也不是人所創(chuàng)造的,它過去、現(xiàn)在和將來永遠(yuǎn)是一團永恒的活火,按一定尺度燃燒,一定尺度熄滅。”
中國被公認(rèn)為是世界文化發(fā)達(dá)最早的文明古國之一。其中青銅文化和陶瓷文化是中國古代文化遺產(chǎn)中的重要組成部分。青銅器和陶瓷產(chǎn)生的元素是一致的,那就是,它們都是金、木、水、火、土的有機組合,并通過其中最關(guān)鍵的媒介——火,而呈現(xiàn)出各自獨特的材質(zhì)感和文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)。青銅器和陶瓷在逐步的演進(jìn)中,不斷地豐富自身,它們是中華文明的物態(tài)化和結(jié)晶體。青銅器和陶瓷的源頭都來自于原始上古文明,首先可以肯定的是,先有了陶器,而后才有了青銅器。鑄造青銅器的“范”、“模”等就是由陶燒成的,可以說,陶瓷和青銅器在中華文明的長河中是共生與互動、相輔相成、此消彼長的。青銅器的材質(zhì)和器形光致茂美、質(zhì)地堅硬,符合夏、商、周以來國家的意志和尚“禮”之需及戰(zhàn)爭武器之堅銳,因而成為當(dāng)時文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)的主流,此時代也被稱為青銅時代。陶器和青銅器的出現(xiàn)和火的發(fā)明與使用有著密切關(guān)系。大約8000多年前的新石器時代,人類在實踐過程中利用泥土和水混合,捏制出各種造型,然后曬干,燒烤后就成了陶器。陶器的出現(xiàn),標(biāo)志著原始人階段的結(jié)束、新石器時代的到來。原始陶器主要是生活用品和祭祀用品,在長期的實踐中,人們將本民族對自然、圖騰、靈物、祖先的崇拜觀念融合到陶器的器形和紋飾中,也形成后來青銅器的觀念和審美的有機結(jié)合。到公元前4040—前2240年大汶口文化時期,陶器盛行三足器和圈足器,器形有罐形鼎、缽形鼎、壺形鼎、背壺、長頸壺、深腹罐、高柄豆等。這也證明青銅的器形和紋樣是在陶鼎的基礎(chǔ)上發(fā)展而來的。而在6700年前西安半坡出土的迄今為止中國最早的陶瓷樂器——陶塤,還有新石器時代晚期陜西長縣客省莊出土的陶饒與商代流行的銅饒基本一致,說明后來的銅饒是由陶饒發(fā)展而來。諸如陶鬲(圖1)、陶鼓等等發(fā)展到青銅樂器體現(xiàn)了青銅時代“禮樂”的博大氣勢“黃鐘大呂”、“八音齊鳴”,達(dá)到當(dāng)時人類金屬冶煉和音律學(xué)的最高成就。
在上古傳說中的黃帝和蚩尤作戰(zhàn)時,就有了使用青銅兵器的文獻(xiàn)紀(jì)錄。考古發(fā)掘發(fā)現(xiàn)的最早青銅器,是1957年甘肅馬家窯和馬廠文化遺址出土的銅刀(公元前3000年至公元前2300年)。其后,青銅器還在河南偃師二里頭遺址中發(fā)現(xiàn),在那里出土了制作原始的青銅小刀、爵、錐、鈴等。這些青銅器,多是仿照同時期的石、骨、蚌、陶器制成的,其胎質(zhì)很薄,鑄造工藝稚嫩,帶有一定的原始性。它們對社會文化、生產(chǎn)、生活的影響較小,在文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)上還處于萌芽狀態(tài)。它們在石器時代的母體中孕育著,與大量的石器、陶器共存,并相互影響相互推動。由制陶工藝所積累的火侯知識和經(jīng)驗影響和推動了冶煉鑄造青銅器技術(shù)的日漸成熟,鑄造青銅器的“范”等就是由陶燒成。而青銅器成型后,其器形穩(wěn)重、質(zhì)地堅硬、紋飾光致茂美等優(yōu)良特性及構(gòu)圖和秩序之美得到了充分體現(xiàn),體現(xiàn)出中國文化是個道家講的“氣”的世界;另一方面又是個“禮”的世界;青銅材質(zhì)本身的凝重厚實正好對應(yīng)了“禮”的莊嚴(yán)齊一,其中的饕餮形象暗合了“禮”的一個重要特征——威嚴(yán)與秩序,成為國家政權(quán)、個人身份地位的標(biāo)志。
文獻(xiàn)記載夏代根據(jù)國家分成九州而鑄九鼎?!跋蔫T九鼎”說明夏代的青銅鑄造已進(jìn)入高度發(fā)展的時期。夏代以后商代青銅器在此基礎(chǔ)上得以迅速提升,成為古中國文化精神物化的載體,由于這時期形成了獨特的以青銅器為文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)主流的文明形式而被稱為青銅時代。從青銅器文化藝術(shù)的形態(tài)傳承演變歷程可將其分為三個發(fā)展傳承轉(zhuǎn)換階段:商代的以“神”為中心;周代的以“禮”為中心;兩漢時代的以“人”為中心。神性向人性的回歸是青銅時代思想觀念發(fā)展的總趨勢。從最初的饕餮紋所表現(xiàn)的尊神事鬼、神性彌漫的社會走向關(guān)注現(xiàn)實、注重現(xiàn)實、凸顯人性。這種由神性向人性的回歸,奠定了中國文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)以后的發(fā)展之路,使中國走上了一條與西方不同的發(fā)展道路,即注重此岸世界,而較少關(guān)注彼岸世界。青銅文化藝術(shù)發(fā)展到東漢末期以后,由于制瓷技術(shù)成熟,原料豐富,陶瓷較之青銅器在制作上更便捷,使中國陶瓷以迅猛的速度發(fā)展壯大起來,并廣泛深入地進(jìn)入社會生活的方方面面,很快取代了青銅器在社會生活中的地位。青銅器退出了文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)的主流圈而由陶瓷登上了歷史的舞臺。陶瓷進(jìn)入魏晉,再經(jīng)過唐宋的發(fā)展,融入宋代“理”學(xué)和宋人心態(tài)及文人畫精神,帶來了其在宋元明清的高度發(fā)展,成為文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)的主流,從而使中國進(jìn)入陶瓷時代(昌南時代——英語中China,字頭大寫意為中國,字頭小寫則指瓷器也即是景德鎮(zhèn)古稱昌南之譯音)。以青銅時代和陶瓷時代為兩座文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)的高峰構(gòu)成了五千年文明的文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)的演變過程。本文著重從青銅器和陶瓷文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)解析比較中,推演出中國文化之火的躍動之魅和歷史長河的流動之美。
二、青銅時代的文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)的特點和成就
夏商周青銅器文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)體現(xiàn)為國家嚴(yán)格控制的禮器,鼎(圖2)是青銅禮器中最為重要的一個品種,其造型特征為由腹、足、耳三部分組成。大腹可以盛載食物,高足架空可以燒火加熱,空耳可以穿過長杠利于搬運。盡管鼎的實用意義是盛放或烹煮食物,但鼎的真正價值卻體現(xiàn)為國家政權(quán)、個人身份與地位的標(biāo)志。它一般多用于統(tǒng)治階級的祭祀和宴飲,具有區(qū)別尊卑貴賤的功能,是權(quán)力的象征,并根據(jù)地位的不同進(jìn)行嚴(yán)格等級上的分配使用制度“:天子九鼎,諸侯七鼎,大夫五鼎,元士三鼎或一鼎”。鼎在當(dāng)時人們的思想意識中占有重要地位,東周時一幕幕問鼎、奪鼎、追鼎的歷史傳說,及秦始皇泗水撈鼎,漢武帝得鼎改元的歷史記載,成語“一言九鼎”、“問鼎中原”、“三足鼎立”等等都源自于鼎的象征意義的引申。青銅器具有記錄與傳承中華文化歷史的功能。青銅器中的銘文內(nèi)容豐富,有祭祀祖先、征伐、紀(jì)功、冊命和賞賜等記載,生動而具體地補充了歷史文獻(xiàn)記載的不足,為研究青銅時代的人文歷史提供了重要的原始資料。在祭祀和典禮中青銅樂器更是不可或缺,青銅樂器有如饒、鐘、鈴、鼓等,并有按音律學(xué)原理編成的以編鐘、編罄為主的大型青銅樂器組合陣,體現(xiàn)了青銅時代“禮樂”的博大氣勢。“鐘鳴鼎食”即反映了當(dāng)時在祭祀和典禮的盛況?!包S鐘大呂”、“八音齊鳴”是我國古代音樂中所用的兩句成語,以“黃鐘大呂”來形容音樂的莊嚴(yán)、文辭的莊重或場面的熱烈;以“八音齊鳴”來形容各種樂器一起熱烈地演奏。湖北隨縣出土的戰(zhàn)國時期的曾侯乙編鐘,是目前世界上僅有的保留著原有音響的一套特大型定音古樂器,也是世界上保留下來的最古老的12個半音的樂器。編鐘共56件,分上、中、下三層。經(jīng)檢測每件編鐘不僅都能發(fā)音,而且能發(fā)兩個不同的音,可以演奏各種現(xiàn)代樂曲,而且音質(zhì)純正,音色優(yōu)美,達(dá)到當(dāng)時人類金屬冶煉和音律學(xué)的最高成就。
青銅時代把中國文化藝術(shù)推進(jìn)到歷史的高峰。春秋戰(zhàn)國時期的百家爭鳴中產(chǎn)生了分別以老子和孔子為代表的道家思想和儒家思想,形成了中國特有的出世與入世的哲學(xué),它們是幾千年來注入到中國人血脈中的宇宙觀和人生觀。中國藝術(shù)從原始到理性的演化,其文學(xué)終端是青銅時代的《詩經(jīng)》?!对娊?jīng)》中風(fēng)、雅、頌的排列體現(xiàn)了一種理性的規(guī)范,同時也顯出一種宇宙觀。風(fēng)、雅、頌是青銅時代的等級秩序,也是一種天人關(guān)系。也就是說中華文明的精神內(nèi)核及框架在青銅時代已經(jīng)聚集和搭建完成。青銅時代造就了秦漢氣魄,使秦漢時期的文化形態(tài)顯示出一種胸懷之大、力量之大、氣魄之大、趣味之大。秦漢文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)的這種大氣魄,來源于青銅的強悍、陽剛、莊重,勃發(fā)于新統(tǒng)一的現(xiàn)實力量及容納萬有、法天象地的想象心靈。正是因為秦漢時期民風(fēng)的淳樸、大氣、強悍、陽剛、包容性強,才有了沿用至今的“漢族”、“男子漢”等名詞……從青銅器文化藝術(shù)的形態(tài)傳承演變歷程可將其分為三個發(fā)展傳承轉(zhuǎn)換階段:商代的以“神”為中心;周代的以“禮”為中心;兩漢時代的以“人”為中心。神性向人性的回歸是青銅時代思想觀念發(fā)展的總趨勢。從戰(zhàn)國中期開始的青銅器文化藝術(shù)性態(tài)以“人”為中心的趨勢到漢代得到了最完美的體現(xiàn),追求人本,體驗人生樂趣、容納萬有、法天象地的想象心靈成為時代思潮、時代風(fēng)貌。這個時期的青銅文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)的轉(zhuǎn)換——由為以“神”、“禮”為中心轉(zhuǎn)變成為以“人”為中心。青銅器神秘的宗教外衣及莊嚴(yán)的禮制思想被剝離掉了。漢代青銅器在戰(zhàn)國的基礎(chǔ)上,將春秋以來的諸種青銅工藝推向頂峰,集青銅器鑄造工藝之大成。青銅器文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)的演變過程實質(zhì)上是:一個由幻想到現(xiàn)實的過程,一個以神為本到以人為本的過程。天人關(guān)系的變化是青銅器文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)演變的關(guān)鍵因素。
中國青銅文化經(jīng)歷了2000余年的發(fā)展歷程,青銅時代把中國文化藝術(shù)推進(jìn)到歷史的高峰,青銅器作為2000余年時代精神和文化藝術(shù)的物質(zhì)載體也留下了時代演變社會變革的痕跡,青銅時代中華文明的精神內(nèi)核及框架的形成,為陶瓷時代的到來打下了堅實的精神與文化取向的基礎(chǔ)。東漢晚期,由于制瓷原料豐富,制瓷技術(shù)發(fā)展成熟,瓷器制作比青銅鑄造更為方便。瓷器沒有漆器和鐵器本身所有的局限,可以廣泛地用于人們?nèi)粘I畹脑S多方面,并且它在材質(zhì)感上的似玉非玉的品性,符合中國人自遠(yuǎn)古而來形成的玉石文化的精神追求。這樣,陶瓷很快取代了青銅器在人們?nèi)粘I钪械牡匚?。青銅文化演變到以“人”為中心的精神與文化取向及藝術(shù)追求為陶瓷奠定了文化根基和美學(xué)基礎(chǔ),于是,由陶瓷傳承了青銅器作為文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)主流的歷史地位。青銅文化藝術(shù)退出了歷史的舞臺,而由陶瓷閃亮登場。但,這并不說青銅文化已經(jīng)消亡,隨著東漢末年佛教的傳入中國,青銅制作的精美的佛像、香爐、法器及錢幣、銅鏡等等一直在生產(chǎn)鑄造。青銅器的文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)一直在展現(xiàn)它獨特的影響和魅力。只是青銅器退出了文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)的主流圈,而由符合時代需求的陶瓷登上了歷史的舞臺。
三、陶瓷時代之藝術(shù)形態(tài)的特點和成就
我們在日常生活中聽到的是“陶瓷”,其實陶瓷是陶器與瓷器的統(tǒng)稱,從發(fā)展的歷程來看是先有陶器,后有瓷器,在西漢時陶器和瓷器才分開。魏晉南北朝的中國,進(jìn)入了瓷器時代。從東漢到南北朝,我國青瓷逐步成熟起來,但這一時期的瓷器無論是造型還是紋飾都與青銅器有聯(lián)系。這時瓷器的造型特征是清秀挺拔,與當(dāng)時人們的審美愛好相一致,更多的是反映人和社會,人已成為陶器造型的主體。陶瓷藝術(shù)裝飾語言反映了人間生活的千姿百態(tài),反映出人們對于自然和自身認(rèn)識的深入。在這種語境和情境中,其藝術(shù)形式體現(xiàn)出中國傳統(tǒng)文士的既入世又出世的矛盾狀態(tài)。魏晉以來,審美風(fēng)氣變化,崇尚古拙質(zhì)樸、簡淡空疏的“六朝風(fēng)韻”與講情致、講風(fēng)神、講個性的魏晉風(fēng)度。這時期少了青銅時代的國家意志和大氣磅礴、容納萬有、法天象地的特點,而轉(zhuǎn)為依法自然、逸氣飄然、秀骨清相的文人士大夫的風(fēng)神氣韻。唐代是中國藝術(shù)的高峰,又是中國文化藝術(shù)從前期轉(zhuǎn)向后期的關(guān)鍵。唐代的時代精神體現(xiàn)為豐富的藝術(shù)創(chuàng)造,為后期社會奠定了一系列藝術(shù)類型和藝術(shù)境界的根基。其中青瓷、白瓷、唐三彩代表了唐代陶瓷的最高水平。唐代陶瓷經(jīng)過絲綢之路廣泛傳播到海外,促進(jìn)了中外文化藝術(shù)的交流。陶瓷“自唐代始而有窯名”,這種傳統(tǒng)習(xí)慣一直沿用至今。
陶瓷正漸漸脫離青銅器的影響,開始展現(xiàn)出具有自身特色的文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)。自魏晉帶著深刻社會文化藝術(shù)背景的青瓷風(fēng)行以來,到了宋代得到了更廣泛的尊重和發(fā)展,并在原有玻璃青釉的基礎(chǔ)上,開創(chuàng)出不透明、乳濁狀的瓷釉,一改隋朝以來“南青北白”時期的一覽無余、可以透徹見底的青釉傳統(tǒng),創(chuàng)造了展現(xiàn)獨特藝術(shù)形態(tài)的乳濁釉、結(jié)晶釉、石灰堿釉和多層釉。這樣在釉色的運用上,為陶瓷美學(xué)開辟了一種新的境界,使其彰顯出淳樸、自然、大氣的特質(zhì),不僅具有玉的質(zhì)感——“汁水瑩潤如堆脂”的色澤,還有著自然的開片和窯變,典雅純潔而令人回味。宋代是“玉的精神”和類玉的品質(zhì)體現(xiàn)的最為深刻的時代。鈞、汝、官、哥、定五大窯(圖3、圖4)所取得卓越成就,使中國在人類制瓷史上登峰造極。它那冰肌玉骨般的素雅、沉靜品格,成為后世瓷業(yè)執(zhí)著追求的審美典范。宋代不僅傳承了歷史的優(yōu)良基因,而且開拓創(chuàng)新,為元明清瓷業(yè)的發(fā)展奠定了基礎(chǔ)。宋代文化將漢唐以來的崇高精神以更為理性的方式進(jìn)行把握,呈現(xiàn)出一種真正的中庸合度、剛?cè)嵯酀?、天人合一、氣象渾成、心與理一的文化范式。這一思想相當(dāng)重要、內(nèi)涵也十分豐富。周敦頤的“希圣”、“希賢”,張載的“天人合一”,程顥的“仁體”,程頤的“理”,朱熹的“心與理一”、“氣象渾成”,王陽明的“樂是心之本體”,劉宗周的“慎獨”,王夫之的“情景妙合無限”等,無不體現(xiàn)著“樂”的基本精神和意義,推動并產(chǎn)生了明清浪漫主義美學(xué)思潮和明清之際的重理性、重情理統(tǒng)一的思潮。
宋代陶瓷體現(xiàn)為一種典雅的文化氣質(zhì)之美,內(nèi)斂、沉靜,追求返璞歸真的自然主義,以此來體現(xiàn)自然中物性、趣味性和哲思性,上升到了透徹了悟的哲學(xué)高度。即使是一般日用陶瓷,也有著體現(xiàn)宋代整體文化風(fēng)氣不俗的氣韻和風(fēng)姿。與宋代卓越的青瓷官窯相比,宋代民窯則更生氣勃勃、多姿多彩,同樣具有那個時代的強烈烙印。如磁州窯、吉州窯具有千變?nèi)f化的多彩釉色;黑釉、白釉、窯變釉、釉下彩繪等為元代青花的出現(xiàn)開啟了先河,它們是一種雄健、簡潔的文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)。宋代創(chuàng)造了天趣十足、自然活潑的木葉、兔豪、玳瑁、油滴、天目等各類窯變的黑釉作品,經(jīng)過幾百年的風(fēng)雨沉淀,竟然成了后人難以企及的一座高峰。筆者家鄉(xiāng)在福建武夷山脈著名的宋代建窯遺址周邊地區(qū)松溪縣,它是宋代著名九龍窯所在地。從收藏的九龍窯青瓷片和一只建窯的兔豪盞上,我們能深深體會到宋代陶瓷的獨特魅力。元代大力發(fā)展瓷業(yè),制瓷生產(chǎn)技術(shù)的日臻完善、人們審美觀念的逐步改變,給古老的瓷業(yè)生產(chǎn)帶來巨大的發(fā)展空間。以彩繪青花瓷與釉里紅為代表的釉下彩瓷成了新貴,而瓷器繪畫裝飾也變?yōu)橹髁?。由宋代的追求灰、蟹殼青、灰黃、炒米黃等顯示陰柔之美和含蓄之美,轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)殚_始吸納異族的粗獷之美。
元代為蒙古族統(tǒng)治,上層階級整體文化素養(yǎng)不高,文人地位空前降落?!熬湃迨ぁ?,儒士在社會地位中排行第九,僅高于乞丐。這造成許多文人畫家為生計而投入了陶瓷繪制的生產(chǎn)中。由于使用了釉下彩的技術(shù),釉料在燒制過程中可以產(chǎn)生筆墨在宣紙上的濃淡干枯的微妙變化,使得陶瓷紋飾更加向中國傳統(tǒng)的文人水墨畫方向靠近。把中國文人畫引入陶瓷,在瓷器上題詩作畫推動了元代青花瓷器的大步發(fā)展,青花瓷成了中國畫技巧與制瓷工藝的完美結(jié)晶,從而帶來了藝術(shù)重心的轉(zhuǎn)移和審美趣味的變遷。文化藝術(shù)的世俗性繼續(xù)發(fā)展而被整合進(jìn)文化的整體結(jié)構(gòu)中。起于元代的白地藍(lán)花的青花瓷成熟于明代,青花瓷造型簡約、素雅,瓷質(zhì)如玉溫潤。無論是從器形還是從紋飾上,它都符合中國文化藝術(shù)在傳承與轉(zhuǎn)換中形成的簡約、自由、合心性的美學(xué)基質(zhì)。它講究虛靜為本、天人合一、中庸合度,具有中國傳統(tǒng)文化藝術(shù)“把玩”的美學(xué)意味。永樂年間的白瓷潔凈如玉、薄如紙;宣德年間的青花瓷達(dá)到了完美無缺、合度的境界。明代在高溫單色釉方面取得了歷史性的輝煌成就,成化年間的祭紅、宣德年間的祭藍(lán)獨步當(dāng)色釉之冠。著名的景泰藍(lán)又名琺瑯,起源于元代,盛行于明景泰年間因其釉料顏色主要以藍(lán)色(孔雀藍(lán)和寶石藍(lán))為主,古稱為景泰藍(lán)。在歷經(jīng)元、明、清三代王朝的傳承與轉(zhuǎn)換中,人們創(chuàng)造了燦爛的景泰藍(lán)文化(圖5)。
明代宣德爐是繼商、周青銅器后另一件傲人的銅鑄品,是用金屬鋅配制鑄造的黃銅器,在合金配制、熔煉、鑄造及表面處理技術(shù)上都達(dá)到了一個新的高度。器形上深深地受到宋瓷文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)的影響。清代的陶瓷,是中國陶瓷文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)依然風(fēng)采的又一個高峰。清代是滿族統(tǒng)治者,清軍入關(guān)后在被漢族文化逐步同化整合后,還帶著強烈滿族文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)的特征:追求紋飾繁麗、色彩搭配對比強烈。這種特點在中國很多少數(shù)民族生活物件和服飾中都能體現(xiàn)出來。所以清代陶瓷文化藝術(shù)在彩瓷方面的發(fā)展迅猛達(dá)到成就巔峰,為中國陶瓷注入了新鮮的血液。清代陶瓷以康熙、雍正、乾隆三個歷史時期為繁榮階段,康熙時期最為精絕的五彩瓷器,其胎骨輕薄、釉色潔白瑩亮、畫工細(xì)膩、色彩柔和、線條流暢。雍乾時的粉彩到了爐火純青的高度,器形合度,色調(diào)溫潤,鮮艷而不妖冶,立體感強,體現(xiàn)了強烈的時代氣息和文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)的花枝招展。直到現(xiàn)在雍、乾時的粉彩還成為古玩陶瓷拍賣會上競拍的寵兒??滴鯐r期的青花瓷在元代明代基礎(chǔ)上又更進(jìn)一步,其青花層次分明,筆韻濃淡如中國畫般墨分五色,把中國文人畫的筆墨意境和追求充分地轉(zhuǎn)換到青花瓷上,同時還將西洋畫技有機融入青花紋飾中(圖6)。
中國陶瓷是民族心靈的物態(tài)化和結(jié)晶體,有著深厚的文化底蘊、內(nèi)涵,文脈清晰,從而形成了自身世界獨有的陶瓷文化,并隨著歷史的進(jìn)程不斷更新著自身的面貌。我們可看到中國陶瓷文化的文脈在傳承與轉(zhuǎn)換中所顯現(xiàn)出的鮮明時代特征:秦漢的氣魄、六朝風(fēng)韻、大唐氣象、宋人心態(tài)、元明清趣味,它們無不閃耀著屬于各自時代的、獨有的傲人光輝。追溯中國陶瓷文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)在歷史各個時期傳承與創(chuàng)新,最醒目的是中國繪畫形式在陶瓷上的轉(zhuǎn)換表達(dá)方式。中國陶瓷注重藝術(shù)形式與內(nèi)容的并重發(fā)展,把客觀形式中的抽象生命伸展到最強的限度,并極力清除了強加于人的“物質(zhì)美”。這就使觀眾能直接進(jìn)入陶瓷藝術(shù)的精神世界,與之發(fā)生內(nèi)在共鳴。中國陶瓷在器形、紋飾等諸方面已簡約到接近點、線、面的抽象形式,這種形式上的視覺沖擊和思維上的強烈碰撞產(chǎn)生了新的視點,導(dǎo)致了藝術(shù)樣式的變動。陶瓷中的精髓就在于造型是否恰到好處地與它的適用度及紋飾和質(zhì)地完美結(jié)合。它注重點、線、面的完美融合,營造成一個神思飛揚、上天入地的境界,時間與空間相互存在,這樣的空間構(gòu)架必須匯入形而上的精神感受,以及具有書法線條的意蘊,而且在造型上的結(jié)束處和轉(zhuǎn)折部分強調(diào)不著痕跡、天然落成的形象。這是從自然主義的寫實中提取到境界層面的抽象的自然,及中國美學(xué)精神的“妙造自然”。它類似于中國畫中的意境美,即所畫的一樹一石是虛靈的、表象的,因而,反映到色釉視覺語言上,也是中國式的寫實。這種深入內(nèi)心的精神的寫實與中國畫的個體思想融于宇宙意識有異曲同工之妙,因為它們都體現(xiàn)了中國哲學(xué)精神。中國茶文化促進(jìn)了陶瓷茶具生產(chǎn)的多樣化,構(gòu)成茶道與茶器的合二為一,有著源遠(yuǎn)流長的文化內(nèi)涵。延續(xù)至今的茶及茶具的使用,依然成為人們交流文化、思想、情感的精神平臺。
同樣,中國酒文化促進(jìn)了從青銅器酒具到陶瓷酒具的大量生產(chǎn)與使用,創(chuàng)造出器形多樣、雅致的陶瓷酒器造型。這是中國酒文化與陶瓷文化的融合。民以食為天,鍋碗瓢盆等各種陶瓷器具,承載著幾千年天南地北的中國豐富的飲食文化。中國陶瓷自漢、唐由“絲綢之路”“、茶馬古道”傳播到中亞、西亞、歐洲和非洲一帶的地區(qū)。自宋起從海上絲路(瓷器之路)和陸上“絲綢之路”輸往世界各地,促進(jìn)了中國與世界不同區(qū)域的經(jīng)濟、文化、藝術(shù)的交流。中國陶瓷的傳播對許多國家的文化藝術(shù)產(chǎn)生了不同程度的影響。它首先帶動了日本、韓國的陶瓷文化藝術(shù)的產(chǎn)生,并促使兩國各自走出一條充滿地域特色的陶瓷之路。同樣,它對西亞伊斯蘭一帶的影響極大,具有伊斯蘭文化藝術(shù)特征的青花瓷不僅成為伊斯蘭人民不可缺少的日常用品,也成為他們裝飾廟宇和家庭不可缺少的陳設(shè)品。它對歐洲的影響也是巨大的,促進(jìn)和推動了17世紀(jì)追求東方情調(diào)的“羅可可”藝術(shù)的誕生。陶瓷藝術(shù)作為當(dāng)時中國文化藝術(shù)的主流和原創(chuàng)性洋洋灑灑,使中國走向了世界,更使得世界認(rèn)識和了解了中國文化。
四、結(jié)論
青銅器和陶瓷都是金、木、水、火、土的有機組合并通過其中最關(guān)鍵的媒介——火的練就,而呈現(xiàn)出各自獨特的材質(zhì)感和文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)。它們在歷史長河逐步的推演中,共生與互動、傳承與轉(zhuǎn)換、此消彼長,不斷地豐富自身的文化藝術(shù)形態(tài),是兩根撐起五千年中華文明的頂梁柱。青銅器和陶瓷是中國文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)最具代表性的物質(zhì)載體和文明精神的結(jié)晶體,它們承載著深厚的文化內(nèi)涵,流淌著明晰的文脈,具有濃厚的藝術(shù)魅力和強烈的感染力及時代精神。青銅時代把中國文化藝術(shù)推進(jìn)到高峰,春秋戰(zhàn)國的百家爭鳴中產(chǎn)生了老子和孔子的道家和儒家思想,形成了中國特有的出世與入世的哲學(xué),是幾千年來注入到中國人血脈中的宇宙觀和人生觀,中國文化藝術(shù)形態(tài)從原始到理性的演化,從“神”到“禮”到“人”的回歸,顯出一種宇宙觀,也是一種天人關(guān)系。中華文明的精神內(nèi)核及框架在青銅時代已經(jīng)聚集和搭建完成。
篇2
1.在教學(xué)時,教師要注意英漢語中具有豐富文化內(nèi)涵的詞匯
如動植物詞匯、顏色詞匯、地名詞匯、數(shù)字習(xí)語等通過對比分析英漢部分詞匯的文化內(nèi)涵,展示中西方文化差異西方人重理性和邏輯思維,漢民族重悟性和辯證思維,通過讓學(xué)生了解這種思維習(xí)慣上的文化差異。體會其對語言表達(dá)方式的影響 進(jìn)而學(xué)習(xí)英語語法,減少中國式英語的錯誤 ,在傳遞文化知識的同時,教師還要培養(yǎng)學(xué)生用英語思維的習(xí)慣,以英語思維模式學(xué)習(xí)英語 排除母語文化和母語思維的干擾,按西方人的觀念和思維進(jìn)行有效的交際,教師要培養(yǎng)學(xué)生的閱讀興趣。鼓勵學(xué)生廣泛收集適合自己的閱讀材料,如各類報刊,文摘 雜志等,通過大量的閱讀 學(xué)生可以開闊眼界,有助于在深層次上對異域文化有所了解,教師可以借助此幻燈片,娛樂電影等,增加學(xué)生對文化差異的敏感度 。
2.英語教學(xué)應(yīng)注意中西方文化差異比較提高英語教學(xué)效果
交際能力不但包括對語言形式的掌握 而且包括對語言使用社會規(guī)則的了解和熟識 ,英語教學(xué)中教師應(yīng)遵循語言分析和文化比較相結(jié)合的原則 注意對比中西方之間的文化差異 要讓學(xué)生認(rèn)識到不同的語言不但在語音、詞匯、語法等方面存在著差異,而且在交際規(guī)則上有很大的差異,因此學(xué)英語的學(xué)生不但要了解而且要深入學(xué)習(xí)英語國家的歷史,文化傳統(tǒng) 風(fēng)俗習(xí)慣 交際規(guī)則,生活方式等諸多方面的知識,與此同時 教師還必須不斷引導(dǎo)學(xué)生加強對本國文化的學(xué)習(xí)。使他們逐步提高對本國文化的認(rèn)識,在比較中西方文化的基礎(chǔ)上把握二者之間的差異,從英語教學(xué)中如何培養(yǎng)跨文化交際能力,避免文化沖突從以上的分析可以看出,在我們與西方的交往過程中,確實存在著很多文化方面的沖突,直接影響到了跨文化交往的效果,為了改變這一狀況,我們極有必要在實際教學(xué)中培養(yǎng)學(xué)生的跨文化交際能力,具體措施如下:
2.1 授課教師要轉(zhuǎn)變觀念在我國目前的教學(xué)體系
外語教學(xué)多半只在課堂上進(jìn)行,教師起著絕對的主導(dǎo)作用。如果教師只把重點放在語法和詞匯教學(xué)上,學(xué)生就不可能學(xué)會語言的實際運用,也無法獲得跨文化交際的能力。因此,授課的教師必須要轉(zhuǎn)變自己的觀念,切實認(rèn)識到文化沖突的危害性和培養(yǎng)學(xué)生跨文化交際能力的重要性。同時,教師還要加強學(xué)習(xí),提高自身的綜合文化素質(zhì),只有這樣,才能全面把握英語文化知識教育的量與度,以及教學(xué)的具體步驟和方法,以達(dá)到預(yù)期的教學(xué)目的。
2.2 改進(jìn)現(xiàn)有的教學(xué)方法一直以來
小學(xué)的英語教學(xué)側(cè)重點都放在了語言知識的傳授上,而忽略了跨文化交際能力的培養(yǎng)。為了改變這種情況,我們必須改進(jìn)教學(xué)方法,在質(zhì)和量兩個方面對課堂教學(xué)中的文化教學(xué)加以控制,并充分利用現(xiàn)代化的教學(xué)手段來調(diào)動學(xué)生的學(xué)習(xí)積極性。此外還可以舉辦一些專題講座,以滿足學(xué)生的求知欲望,培養(yǎng)出具有較高跨文化交際能力的人才。但是值得注意的是,在改進(jìn)教學(xué)方法時,一定要使新的內(nèi)容與學(xué)生所學(xué)的語言知識緊密聯(lián)系,并與語言交際實踐緊密結(jié)合。
篇3
摘要:
美國華裔文學(xué)是美國主流文學(xué)的重要組成部分之一,當(dāng)前美國華裔文學(xué)作品中,包含兩種不同的發(fā)展趨勢:一種趨勢是美國華裔文學(xué)正在逐步實現(xiàn)中、美文化的融合,在傳承中國傳統(tǒng)文化的基礎(chǔ)上,汲取現(xiàn)代美國文化的精髓,實現(xiàn)兩種文化的兼容并蓄;另一種趨勢是疏離中國傳統(tǒng)文化,在進(jìn)一步割裂傳統(tǒng)文化的基礎(chǔ)上,撇清自身和中國傳統(tǒng)文化的關(guān)系。
關(guān)鍵詞:
美國華裔文學(xué);中國傳統(tǒng)文化;差異性
美國華裔文學(xué)是華裔美國人創(chuàng)作出來的文學(xué)作品,在對美國華裔文學(xué)研究過程中,有兩個主要的區(qū)域要進(jìn)行定義和規(guī)范。首先,當(dāng)前的所有美國華裔文學(xué)都是使用英文來進(jìn)行創(chuàng)作的,而與中國傳統(tǒng)文化有著更為緊密聯(lián)系的華人文學(xué)則是使用漢語來創(chuàng)作的。因此,將美國華裔文學(xué)和華人文學(xué)同等定義是不對的,美國華裔文學(xué)和傳統(tǒng)文化的隔離度是相對較高的;其次,美國華裔文學(xué)是那些已經(jīng)有了美國國籍,抑或是在美國出生的華人的后裔創(chuàng)作的,從這個角度來看,創(chuàng)作美國華裔文學(xué)的人都已經(jīng)在美國的生活環(huán)境下生活了很長時間。眾所周知,美國是世界文化的大熔爐,這些美裔華人都受到了美國文化的深刻影響,這些人所創(chuàng)作的文化作品都和美國現(xiàn)代文化充分結(jié)合在了一起,從這個角度來看,美國華裔文學(xué)和美國文學(xué)的聯(lián)系相比較于和中國傳統(tǒng)文化的聯(lián)系還要相對緊密一些。
一、美國華裔文學(xué)起源于中國傳統(tǒng)文化
通過對相關(guān)文獻(xiàn)資料的查詢,可以發(fā)現(xiàn),從美國華裔文學(xué)的發(fā)展歷史來看,美國華裔文學(xué)在發(fā)展的初始階段,出于自身的“根源”,對中國的傳統(tǒng)文化十分癡迷,但是,隨著美國華裔文學(xué)的發(fā)展,由于和美國現(xiàn)代文化的融合,逐步產(chǎn)生了對于中國傳統(tǒng)文學(xué)的隔閡。[1]與此同時,隨著全球化進(jìn)程的推進(jìn),美國文化和中國文化也產(chǎn)生了融合。從“追根溯源”的角度分析,可以看出,美國華裔文學(xué)所“傳承”的中國傳統(tǒng)文化具有五千年光輝燦爛的中華文明的積淀。中國的傳統(tǒng)文化是對中國五千年歷史的道德觀、價值觀的總結(jié),這些優(yōu)秀的文化也是對中國人傳統(tǒng)的思維方式以及生活習(xí)俗的總結(jié)歸納。因此,作為中華民族的后裔,對于這些優(yōu)秀的傳統(tǒng)文化,都有保持這些傳統(tǒng)的歷史責(zé)任感。因此,美國華裔文學(xué)作為中華炎黃子孫所創(chuàng)設(shè)的文化,也和中國的傳統(tǒng)文化有著密切的聯(lián)系,包含著中國傳統(tǒng)文化和人文意識的傳承,這也表明了,美國華裔文學(xué)創(chuàng)設(shè)的初始階段,其和中國的傳統(tǒng)文化有著割不斷的歷史文化淵源。在美國華裔文學(xué)發(fā)展的初始階段,一些創(chuàng)作者大都是來自中國的“佼佼者”,這些人都有著十分深厚的理論知識功底。與此同時,這些人剛剛離開自己的國家,面對著和傳統(tǒng)的中華文明有著隔閡的美國文化,這些人在最初的階段都很不適應(yīng),他們心中的“傳統(tǒng)文化”和“美國文化”有著一定的差距。在這樣的背景下,這些優(yōu)秀的作家都力求在保證自身傳統(tǒng)文化的涵養(yǎng)下,盡可能地實現(xiàn)中國文化和美國文化的融合。例如:美國華裔文學(xué)的代表性人物黎錦揚在進(jìn)行《花鼓歌》的創(chuàng)作過程中,就結(jié)合了自身的經(jīng)歷,以中國的傳統(tǒng)文化為基礎(chǔ),在作品中成功地創(chuàng)作了美國華裔文學(xué)的典型形象—王老爺?shù)膬鹤油跞@個人物就是中西文化結(jié)合的典型代表。在該作品中,主人公王三從自己小的時候便開始接受美國文化教育,在這樣的生活發(fā)展背景下,主人公在13歲時已經(jīng)完全融入美國社會。由于受到美國文化的影響,主人公幾乎忘記了中國傳統(tǒng)文化。但是,主人公的父親還不想讓主人公“忘根”,嚴(yán)格要求他學(xué)習(xí)中國傳統(tǒng)文化。可想而知,主人公對于和自己生活“格格不入”的中國傳統(tǒng)文化自然是絲毫不感興趣,甚至對父親抱怨說“對那些廢話一竅不通”,其深深地反映了美國華裔文學(xué)對于融合中西文化的無力感,僅僅憑借個人的一腔熱血,是無法在根源上解決兩種文化之間的差異問題的。[2]隨著時代的發(fā)展,美國華裔文學(xué)逐步地從初始階段走向了轉(zhuǎn)折階段。在這一發(fā)展的歷史時期,不得不提的問題就是“種族歧視”問題。美國華裔文學(xué)的創(chuàng)作者們開始對自己的身份產(chǎn)生迷茫,他們在這一階段開始認(rèn)為“中國傳統(tǒng)文化”給他們的發(fā)展帶來了限制,甚至想完全拋棄中國傳統(tǒng)文化,以便于自身完全投入到美國社會的主流文化之中。這一文化現(xiàn)象也在這一歷史階段的美國華裔文學(xué)作品中得到印證。從這一段歷史的發(fā)展來看,以湯婷婷和譚恩美為代表的新一代美國華裔文學(xué)作者,對于融入美國主流文化的意愿也越來越強烈。但是,隨著民族意識的覺醒,美國華裔文學(xué)的創(chuàng)作者深刻感受到了“根”和“民族凝聚力”的作用,這些作者開始重新定位自身對于中國傳統(tǒng)文化的理解。例如:在當(dāng)代著名的美國華裔文學(xué)作品《喜福會》中,就傳達(dá)出了新一代的創(chuàng)作者對于美國華裔文學(xué)的認(rèn)知:不去逃避自己的文化起源,充分地融合自身的民族文化屬性,并在結(jié)合美國文化的發(fā)展特點的基礎(chǔ)上,讓自己更好地和美國的主流文化進(jìn)行融合。[3]在這種發(fā)展背景下,美國華裔文學(xué)逐漸進(jìn)入發(fā)展的巔峰階段,在這一階段,世界上的各種文化實現(xiàn)了高度融合。與此同時,隨著中國世界地位的提升,美國華裔文學(xué)作家對于自己的出身問題已經(jīng)不再苦惱。美國華裔文學(xué)作家更能夠利用詼諧、幽默、反諷的作品回應(yīng)“歧視問題”。如《典型美國人》就從美國發(fā)展的歷史階段,更加強調(diào)中國傳統(tǒng)文化和美國主流文化的融合。這一時期的作品對于美國華裔文學(xué)的發(fā)展也有著非常有效的促進(jìn)作用。
二、美國華裔文學(xué)與中國傳統(tǒng)文化的差異性
(一)美國華裔文學(xué)與中國傳統(tǒng)文化差異性的具體表現(xiàn)
1.美國華裔文學(xué)存在對中國傳統(tǒng)文化的誤讀
美國華裔文學(xué)作家的典型代表人物湯婷婷在進(jìn)行《女勇士》的創(chuàng)作過程中,使用了美國式的視角,同時又受到了嚴(yán)重的“東方主義”思想的影響,在該作品中描繪的中國形象是文化腐朽,思想愚昧的。與此同時,在她的筆下中國還是“養(yǎng)閨女還不如喂只鳥”的中國,在這樣的筆觸下,這些美國華裔文學(xué)不僅僅對中國進(jìn)行了詆毀,還對中國傳統(tǒng)文化進(jìn)行了抹黑。[5]與此同時,由于這些美國華裔文學(xué)是美國的華裔創(chuàng)作的,很容易讓美國人錯誤認(rèn)為這些美國華裔文學(xué)描述的就是真實的,對中國的形象造成了嚴(yán)重的詆毀。馬勝美曾對于美國華裔文學(xué)評價道:“某些美國華裔文學(xué)作品,為了達(dá)到自己不可告人的目的,有意識地歪曲中國文化?!保?]極為帶有偏見地詆毀中國的形象,為了充分地迎合美國白人的主流文化,從而導(dǎo)致中國傳統(tǒng)文化和西方文化的隔閡。從這些美國華裔文學(xué)作品來看,中國的傳統(tǒng)文化和美國華裔文學(xué)之間產(chǎn)生的隔閡是和某些帶有偏見的美國華裔作家分不開的。
2.美國華裔文學(xué)的生存土壤不同于傳統(tǒng)中國文化
從根源來分析,這種隔閡的產(chǎn)生是和這些美國華裔文學(xué)作家的生活狀態(tài)分不開的。雖然他們有著中華民族的血統(tǒng),但是,他們的上一輩就已經(jīng)生活在美國社會,這些人從小就接受了美國文化的熏陶,所接受的教育也都是美式教育,這些人只是認(rèn)識到了自己對于“美國人”這一名詞的認(rèn)同,對于自身的民族的歷史也就忽略了。因此,這些人所創(chuàng)作的文學(xué)作品都只是他們片面的“道聽途書”后所創(chuàng)作的,這些文化作品也往往會是“無根之萍”。如在知名美國華裔文學(xué)作家譚恩美的成名作《喜福會》中,就對這一文化的割裂情況進(jìn)行了探索分析。在該小說之中,對四位華人移民母親和她們的女兒之間的關(guān)系進(jìn)行了研究分析,充分展現(xiàn)出了這些母女之間的關(guān)系:母親雖然有著教育女兒“尋找中國文化淵源”的思想意識,但是,又希望自己的女兒能夠充分地繼續(xù)自己的“美國夢”,展現(xiàn)了這一代美國華裔在成長過程中的矛盾,從此也看出了美國人成長過程中所經(jīng)歷的矛盾之痛。
(二)美國華裔文學(xué)與中國傳統(tǒng)文化差異根源因素探析
從美國華裔文學(xué)和中國傳統(tǒng)文化產(chǎn)生的差異性角度來看,這一問題的產(chǎn)生有著較深的理論背景。以薩義德的“東方主義理論”為代表的理論,是進(jìn)行美國華裔文學(xué)和傳統(tǒng)文化差異研究的重要參考性理論。具體來說,這一理論是建立在“東方”與“西方”的本體論的基礎(chǔ)上完成的[4],其所定義的中國傳統(tǒng)文化和美國主流文化的關(guān)系,錯誤地認(rèn)為美國文化應(yīng)該處于“控制”東方文化的定位,從這一角度分析,彰顯了美國文化統(tǒng)治世界文化的野心。也正是因為“東方主義理論”的影響,很多的美國華裔文學(xué)所創(chuàng)作出來的文學(xué)作品也展現(xiàn)出了對于中國傳統(tǒng)文化的背離。美國華裔文學(xué)作者對于美國主流文化充滿了向往,出現(xiàn)了擺脫“中國傳統(tǒng)文化”的思想傾向。因此,這些美國華裔文學(xué)作者往往會在文學(xué)作品創(chuàng)作的過程中使用“美國式”的眼光來審查“中國傳統(tǒng)文化”,從而使美國華裔文學(xué)和中國傳統(tǒng)文化之間產(chǎn)生了隔閡。綜合起來看,美國華裔文學(xué)在發(fā)展的歷程中,由于受社會經(jīng)濟發(fā)展變遷的影響,在美國華裔文學(xué)的發(fā)展過程中和中國傳統(tǒng)文化之間的存在差異,這些差異就導(dǎo)致了隔閡和問題的產(chǎn)生。但是,隨著全球化進(jìn)程的加快,文化融合進(jìn)程也在加快,這也是美國華裔文學(xué)發(fā)展的未來趨勢。
三、結(jié)語
綜上所述,由于歷史與現(xiàn)實等各種原因,各國文化之間產(chǎn)生差異性也是必然。但是隨著全球化進(jìn)程的加快,文化的融合也是必然趨勢,人類社會的發(fā)展也是在這樣的差異和融合之間發(fā)生的。中國傳統(tǒng)文化和美國文化之間的關(guān)系,正逐步地從美國文化的“文化施動者”進(jìn)行轉(zhuǎn)變,進(jìn)而在后續(xù)的發(fā)展過程中,產(chǎn)生更多的文化沖突以及融合。但是,隨著時代的發(fā)展,文化之間的融合趨勢也越來越明顯,因此,美國華裔文學(xué)和中國傳統(tǒng)文化之間的融合也是未來的發(fā)展趨勢。
參考文獻(xiàn):
[1]張雯.從認(rèn)同、反認(rèn)同再到否定的認(rèn)同———華裔美國文學(xué)中文化身份定位的變遷[J].湖南城市學(xué)院學(xué)報,2008(2):87-90.
[2]陳為為.趙健秀長篇小說中的政治情結(jié)[J].世界文學(xué)評論,2007(2):141-144.
[3]李貴蒼.趙健秀的《杜老鴨》:在陽剛之氣和文化英雄主義語境中探尋華裔的文化認(rèn)同[J].華文文學(xué),2006(3):41-52.
[4]劉熠.文化身份的探尋與建構(gòu)———從水仙花、黃玉雪、湯亭亭到譚恩美[J].西南大學(xué)學(xué)報(人文社會科學(xué)版),2006(2):185-188.
[5]蒲若茜.論《家鄉(xiāng)》與《唐老鴨》中的“父與子”母題[J].當(dāng)代外國文學(xué),2006(1):50-57.
篇4
關(guān)鍵詞 筷子 叉子 文化差異
中圖分類號:G122 文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)識碼:A
1 群體認(rèn)同與個人本位
從不同的餐桌文化看到了中國文化的思想內(nèi)核是“群體意識”,而西方文化的思想內(nèi)核則是“個體意識”。中國的社會結(jié)構(gòu)以家庭為基礎(chǔ)單元,中國人的社會存在首先依存于以血緣關(guān)系為紐帶的家庭和宗族, 再延伸至家國社稷。人的社會關(guān)系表現(xiàn)為個人、家庭、國家融為一體,文化上兼收并蓄,價值觀以國家集體利益為重,必要時不惜犧牲個人利益或局部利益,保護全體利益?!叭酥荒軣o群,群而無分則爭,爭則亂,亂則窮矣?!敝袊讼矚g聚餐共食,在中國人心目中,“獨食難肥,共食才能汲取營養(yǎng);獨食無味,共食才會其樂無窮。”目的是為了加強人情往來,群體聯(lián)系。中餐桌上的熱鬧氣氛與西餐的雅靜形成了鮮明的反差。主人宴請客人往往為了表現(xiàn)熱情好客,鋪張排場,在餐桌上還頻頻給客人布菜夾菜??腿藗円簧献溃闾咸喜唤^,談天說地,勸酒敬煙,甚至吆喝劃拳,現(xiàn)階段的這種風(fēng)潮有悖于傳統(tǒng)儒家文化“食不語,寢不言”的教誨,已遠(yuǎn)超出文明的界限。
比較正式的宴席的座次安排, 也體現(xiàn)出這種不同的文化認(rèn)同。傳統(tǒng)的中餐宴席使用八仙桌,對門為上,兩邊為偏座。年長者、主賓或地位高的人坐上座,男女主人或陪客者坐下座,其余客人按順序坐偏座?,F(xiàn)代宴席,主要用圓桌及方桌, 但往往男性與女性分桌, 女性安排在次桌或次要座位。若家中請客,女主人往往在廚房和餐廳之間穿梭忙碌,待所有菜品上桌才就座陪客。而西餐宴會中, 主角是女主人,一般使用長形或馬蹄形餐桌,男女主人分坐兩端,然后按男女主賓和一般客人的次序安排座位,即男女穿插安排,以女主人的座位為準(zhǔn),主賓坐在女主人的右上方,主賓夫人坐在男主人的右上方,以右為尊,左為次。入座方式為從左側(cè)入座,男士應(yīng)拖拉餐椅,協(xié)助女士入座,以顯示女士優(yōu)先的紳士風(fēng)度。若家庭宴請,男女主人都應(yīng)始終陪同,客人還應(yīng)送瓶葡萄酒或鮮花,或為女主人準(zhǔn)備紀(jì)念品等小禮物,這也是社交場合的起碼禮節(jié)。
2 面子觀念
在西方社會中也有面子觀念,Brown 和Levinson 于1978 年提出了“面子保全論”,指出禮貌就是“典型人”為滿足面子需求所采取的各種理。他們將面子分為正面面(positive face)和負(fù)面面子(negative face)。正面面子是指每個社會成員希望自己的愿望受人順從, 他的自我形象被人欣賞和贊許。夸贊對方就是西方人典型的生活習(xí)慣和交際方式,不管多么簡單的菜肴,都會得到客人的贊美。如果每道菜都吃完,會令主人很高興,說明自己的心意和努力得到客人的肯定。餐后告別,客人們總要表示“have a nice dinner”(吃得很高興)。而負(fù)面面子是與正面相對而言,指的是社會成員希望其行動不被人干涉, 即具有行動自由和自主決定的自由, 凡是有違這種自由愿望的言行就會被認(rèn)為對他人負(fù)面面子的侵犯。與之相應(yīng),在西方更受歡迎的還有自助餐和雞尾酒會,形式更加自在隨意,按照個人的喜好和食量自由選擇,便于相互聯(lián)絡(luò)與交往。另外邀請他人外出用餐,往往是AA 制,各人付各自的帳,或平分賬單,若為人付賬需事先說明。
由于中國傳統(tǒng)社會是以家族為核心的熟人社會,即人情社會,個人的價值取決于家族和他人的評價。在這種特定語境中,人們往往十分關(guān)注自己在他人心中的地位, 以尋求和捍衛(wèi)自己的優(yōu)勢,保持體面和尊嚴(yán)。在家族和交際圈子中,人們習(xí)慣用面子來解釋和調(diào)節(jié)社會關(guān)系和行為,誰的面子大,誰的話語權(quán)就大,在他人心目中的地位也高。因此人們熱衷于請客和被請,誰的應(yīng)酬多,宴請的檔次高,客人的級別高,誰就“有面子”,在人際交往中,也樂于互相“給面子”。比如餐桌上幾乎每宴必有的敬酒環(huán)節(jié), 敬酒者和被敬者競相表演的一套套說辭,言不由衷,醉翁之意不在酒,全在于面子。餐后爭先付款買單,即使無意出錢,彼此心照不宣,也要做一番“爭面子“的表現(xiàn)。
3 總結(jié)
有些時候不同的禮儀是不同文化之間產(chǎn)生誤解, 導(dǎo)致跨文化交際失敗的一個重要的原因, 而中西方文化的差異又是造成禮儀不同的主要原因。研究和理解深藏在禮儀背后的文化因素, 能使我們更好地把握交際的原則和習(xí)慣技巧。餐桌禮儀作為禮儀中的一種,是我們與西方人交往時難以避免的,因此,對餐桌禮儀的研究不能只分析東西方差異的表層,需要探索其背后的文化,這樣才能做到“知其然,知其所以然”,以客觀寬容的態(tài)度對待異國文化,減少因文化差異所造成的交際障礙,避免產(chǎn)生誤解與沖突。
參考文獻(xiàn)
篇5
關(guān)鍵詞: 漢英文化差異 翻譯策略 優(yōu)化利用
一、漢英文化差異不容忽視
本文根據(jù)《現(xiàn)代漢語詞典》中對“文化”一詞的定義第一條,將“文化”定義為:文化是人類社會歷史發(fā)展過程中所創(chuàng)造的物質(zhì)財富和精神財富的總和。文化包含人類創(chuàng)造的一切財富,語言是人類最杰出的創(chuàng)造物之一。地理位置、社會制度、歷史變革、思維方式等的不同,必然引起兩個民族之間文化的差異,這種差異主要表現(xiàn)在社會習(xí)俗、行為方式及有情感的語言表達(dá)方式上,而語言作為文化的載體和不可分割的組成部分,必然會打上不同文化的烙印。漢語中有“三生有幸”“一塵不染”等反映佛教觀念的詞匯,“改革開放”“一國兩制”等反映政策的詞匯;英語中也有“Sword of Damocles”(達(dá)摩克利斯之劍)等反映歷史的詞匯??梢?,翻譯不僅是一種語言的交換,而且是一種文化的對接。文化的共性使這種對接成為可能,同時文化的個性決定其不可能完美。文化的個性形成文化差異的鴻溝,譯者的使命就是架設(shè)跨越鴻溝的橋梁。[1]因而,如何優(yōu)化自己的翻譯策略便成了譯者要面對的一個問題。
二、兩種翻譯策略及之間的關(guān)系
著名的文學(xué)家魯迅先生就明確地提出了歸化與異化的問題:“動筆之前,就先得解決一個問題,竭力使它歸化,還是盡量保存洋氣呢?”魯迅這里的所謂“洋氣”可以理解為我們所說的“異化”。所謂歸化,就是主張譯文應(yīng)以源語或原文作者為歸宿;異化,則是認(rèn)為譯文應(yīng)以目的語或譯文讀者為歸宿。[2]當(dāng)然,關(guān)于歸化與異化之爭可謂古今中外皆源遠(yuǎn)流長。在中國,古有佛經(jīng)翻譯的“文質(zhì)之爭”,經(jīng)過二十世紀(jì)二三十年代魯迅與梁實秋之爭,直到1987年劉英凱《歸化――翻譯的歧路》將兩者之爭推向;在國外,可追溯到古羅馬時期Cicero,Horace和Jerome等人所論及的word-for-word translation(字譯,即直譯的雛形)和sense-for-sense translation(意譯),十八至十九世紀(jì)德國著名翻譯家Schleiermacher有一句名言:“譯者要么盡量不打擾原作者而讓讀者靠近作者,要么盡量不打擾讀者而讓作者靠近讀者?!保?]二十世紀(jì)七十年代,當(dāng)文論和文學(xué)翻譯領(lǐng)域出現(xiàn)文化轉(zhuǎn)向時,歸化和異化之爭才正式取代直譯和意譯之爭,逐漸成為當(dāng)今翻譯理論的熱門話題之一。[4]無論是歸化派還是異化派,他們都有關(guān)于翻譯目的、文本類型、作者意圖、讀者接受等方面的考慮。隨著時代的進(jìn)步,世界文化交流的頻繁,我認(rèn)為讀者們對異域知識的了解越來越多,尋求異域知識的好奇心也被不斷刺激,各種異域的表達(dá)不斷地被引進(jìn)與接受,因而從長遠(yuǎn)角度來說異化是大勢所趨,然而,歸化與異化目前看來仍是一個辯證的統(tǒng)一體。沒有完全歸化的譯文,也沒有完全異化的譯文。
三、歸化與異化翻譯策略的優(yōu)化
上文提到,歸化與異化是辯證統(tǒng)一的關(guān)系,但由于兩種策略各有所長,如何優(yōu)化翻譯策略就變得極其重要,以下結(jié)合翻譯實例來分析兩種策略的優(yōu)化利用。
例如:至于才子佳人等書……更有一種風(fēng)雨筆墨……(曹雪芹,《紅樓夢》)
As for books of the beauty-and-talented type ...Even worse are those writers of the breeze-and-moonlight school.(楊憲益、戴乃迭譯)
And the “boudoir romance” ... Still worse is the “erotic novel” ...(David Hawkes)
從翻譯的類型來看,原文中“風(fēng)月”二字本意指風(fēng)清月明,在詩詞歌賦中常用以比喻男歡女愛,是一個極富中國文化韻味的詞語,楊戴采用異化的翻譯策略向讀者傳遞出原文本的文化內(nèi)涵。從這一點看,霍氏的歸化譯文略顯單薄。通常情況下,以介紹源語文化為目的的哲學(xué)著作、歷史、典故、民間故事等類型的翻譯,異化策略用得較多,因為這類翻譯的目的就是要把源語文化介紹給目的語的讀者,使其體會、了解源語文化。而對于一些實用性文體的文章,如新聞報道、廣告、宣傳資料、通知等的翻譯,一般可遵循以目的語文化為歸宿,較多地采用歸化策略,以達(dá)到通俗易懂、表達(dá)清晰的效果。如關(guān)于著名電影“Waterloo Bridge”的歸化翻譯《魂斷藍(lán)橋》運用得就恰到好處,譯者翻譯時避免了Waterloo(滑鐵盧)給人以介紹戰(zhàn)爭的誤導(dǎo),而是聯(lián)系影片的愛情主題,譯成了有中國文化特色的“藍(lán)橋”,使中國觀眾聞聯(lián)想起典故,表達(dá)效果極佳。[5]從翻譯的目的和讀者的接受來看,楊氏采用異化策略將文化信息傳達(dá)給讀者,弘揚中國文化的同時希望對中國文化有一定基礎(chǔ)的目的語人群能獲得更多的文化知識,包括對“風(fēng)月”這一意象的把握;而霍氏的譯文顯然更針對中國文化了解甚少的人群。我們可以此來考察“五四”期間異化翻譯發(fā)揮的作用。魯迅極主張“直譯”、“硬譯”、“寧信而不順”,借助翻譯來改造漢語、豐富漢語,使?jié)h語更細(xì)致精密,更富有表現(xiàn)力,更具有邏輯性。異化翻譯此時在很大程度上推動了白話文運動的發(fā)展,從而極大地推動了的發(fā)展。在這里,從不同的角度分析可見歸化與異化的翻譯策略各有千秋,如何使它們的作用在文章中得以優(yōu)化則需要考慮以上因素,在全面分析后方可知曉。
四、結(jié)語
歸化與異化的爭執(zhí)從未間斷,學(xué)者的爭執(zhí)業(yè)已從語言層面上升至文化層面。目前看來二者是在處理文化差異時必須面對和采用的翻譯策略,歸化譯文有較高的可讀性,讀者群較為龐大,讀起來通順易懂;異化譯文可以盡可能多的傳遞文化信息,使讀者體驗異域表達(dá)與文化風(fēng)味,它們各有所長,互相補充與完善?;蛟S若干年后,在另一個較大的學(xué)術(shù)轉(zhuǎn)向之后,我們可以站在更高的層面上審視這兩種翻譯策略,從更多的角度探討二者的優(yōu)化利用。
參考文獻(xiàn):
[1]陳宏薇,李亞丹主編.新編漢英翻譯教程[M].上海:上海外語教育出版社,2004:24.
[2]郭建中.翻譯中的文化因素:異化與歸化[J].上海外國語大學(xué)學(xué)報,1998,(2).
[3]Schleiermacher,A.On the Different Method of Translation[A].Theories of Translation:An Anthology of Essay from Dryden to Derrida[C].Schulte,R.,Biguenet,J.Chicago and London:The University of Chiago Press,1992:36-54.
篇6
民族之所以得以區(qū)分,不僅是受到地域的影響,還因為其發(fā)展歷史與不同。民族的形成是十分自然的過程,一個民族的人,具有較為相似的心理素質(zhì)以及心理趨向,無論是語言應(yīng)用還是行為舉止,都較為相似。而民族與民族之間,會在心理趨向與語言應(yīng)用上存在不同之處,這也是各個民族具有自身的原因。在進(jìn)行英漢翻譯工作時,譯者需要關(guān)注文化差異中的信仰問題,不同的信仰,對于同樣的詞匯具有不同的理解。比如,在中國,龍是權(quán)利的象征,是吉祥的象征。在中國,有許多詞語與龍有關(guān),用具有積極意義。像龍鳳成祥,生龍活虎等。而在英語國家,“dragon”是邪惡與罪惡的象征。在了解中國文化的過程中,許多英美國家的無法理解中國人是龍的傳人。在翻譯時,我們可以將“dragon”轉(zhuǎn)換為“tiger”,推動文化的正常交流。
二、風(fēng)俗習(xí)慣差異,造成詞匯的涵義不同
風(fēng)俗習(xí)慣的不同,使人們對于同一詞匯的使用方法不同。中國是一個崇尚儒家文化的國家,尊老愛幼是一個人的基本品德。在生活中,我們習(xí)慣有老奶奶、老爺爺、老太太這樣的稱呼,老字在中國意味著受人尊敬。而在英美國家則不同,在他們的觀點中,“old”意味著他們沒有價值了,沒有生存的意義了。在進(jìn)行英漢翻譯時,需要對“old”進(jìn)行合理轉(zhuǎn)換,翻譯為令以尊敬的即可。另外,在中國的日常交流中,人們經(jīng)常會提出工作、年齡、收入、婚姻等問題,大家樂于談?wù)撨@些,來增加彼此之間的熟悉度。而在英美國國家,這些都屬于個人隱私,如果你詢問,就說明你沒有禮貌。這就提醒我們每一位英漢翻譯者,需要認(rèn)識到英漢語言中所暗藏的思維與風(fēng)俗問題,尊重不同國家之間的風(fēng)俗習(xí)慣,將翻譯工作做準(zhǔn)做精。
三、地域環(huán)境差異,造成詞匯的涵義不同
語言的含義也會受到地理環(huán)境的影響,不同的區(qū)域,在同一時刻會有不同的地理現(xiàn)象。同樣的地理現(xiàn)象,其所帶來的影響是不同的。這就使得關(guān)于地理或者天氣的詞語,會存在較大的差異。舉例來講,在中國,春天會吹東風(fēng),東風(fēng)一來,春天則到,萬物復(fù)蘇,春暖花開。在我國,東風(fēng)一直被應(yīng)用于大量的詩句當(dāng)中,詩人用描述東風(fēng)來表達(dá)自己對春天的熱愛之情。像“東風(fēng)夜放花千樹”等。
篇7
[Key Words] metaphor; translation; cultural differences; cultural connotations; corresponding relation
【摘 要】 近年來,越來越多的學(xué)者對隱喻進(jìn)行了研究,在現(xiàn)代社會逐漸形成了一股“隱喻熱”。對隱喻的研究在國外已形成較為完整的體系,其中以George Lakeoff 和Mark Johnson的研究最具有代表性。國內(nèi)對隱喻的研究也主要受這兩個人的影響。而縱觀這些研究成果,我們不難發(fā)現(xiàn),很少有對英語隱喻漢譯的研究,而且大多數(shù)傳統(tǒng)的理論家認(rèn)為隱喻僅僅是一種修辭格,屬于語言學(xué)的范疇。但是事實上,隱喻不僅是一種語言現(xiàn)象,也是一種文化現(xiàn)象、認(rèn)知現(xiàn)象。本論文克服了這些局限,試圖從中英文化差異的角度來研究英語隱喻的漢譯。整篇論文分為五個部分。第一部分是導(dǎo)入。該部分立足于認(rèn)為隱喻是一種文化和認(rèn)知現(xiàn)象這一新觀點,闡明了從文化角度對隱喻進(jìn)行研究的意義。第二部分重點分析了語言、文化與翻譯之間的密切關(guān)系。第三部分介紹了隱喻的一些要素,如隱喻的定義,特征及分類。第四部分根據(jù)不同的英漢對應(yīng)關(guān)系,著重闡述了英語隱喻的漢譯方法。最后一部分總結(jié)了此論文的一些要點。
【關(guān)鍵詞】 隱喻;翻譯;文化差異;文化內(nèi)涵;對應(yīng)關(guān)系
1. Introduction
On seeing the title of this thesis, the reader may easily find out three key words: translation, metaphor, and cultural differences. In the view of most people, metaphor belongs to the category of language, but as we know that language has very close connection with translation and culture. As Professor Wang Zuoliang, a master of translation, pointed out, translation involves language as well as culture.[1] Translation is not merely a task of replacing one language with another, but also needs to have a good command of the two different cultures represented by the two different languages. When we concentrate on translation studies, we should attach great importance to both language and culture.
Over the past two decades, translation studies have assumed a sound momentum of advancement, and culture, as an indispensable factor in translation, becomes increasingly important. Through thorough analysis, we can find that there are two tendencies in today’s development of translation studies: firstly, translation studies have been more and more integrated with communication theories; secondly, the focus of translation has been shifted from linguistic transfer to cultural transfer. Based on these two tendencies, many scholars engaged in translation studies agree with the idea that translation is an act of intercultural communication.
Since translation involves two languages and two cultures, and in different cultural backgrounds, there are different languages. Both Chinese and English are great peoples with long history and rich cultural resources, and naturally colorful languages. Metaphor, as a category of language, is a common linguistic phenomenon in both Chinese and English, but metaphors in these two different cultural backgrounds have great differences.
Metaphor doesn’t exist on the birth of human. With the advancement of human civilization, the linguistic competence of our ancestors had been greatly strengthened. They gradually acquired the capability to express their ideas through association. In this way, metaphor——one of the most important means of expression in human language came into being. As the foundation of mankind’s conceptual system, metaphor is the common feature of human language. If there is no metaphor in our language, it will be very hard for us to clearly and vividly express our ideas, let along smooth and successful communication.[2] Traditional theorists viewed metaphor simply as an important stylistic device of the poetic imagination and rhetorical flourish, moreover a matter of words rather than thought or action, but in fact, “metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but also in thought and action.”[3] Our ordinary conceptual system, in terms of which we both think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature. Just as I.A.Richards contends, “all language and thought are metaphorical, and metaphor is the ‘omnipresent principle of language’.”[4]
From the importance of metaphor, we can see that translation of metaphor has great significance to the cultural translation. Peter Newmark has stated in Approaches to Translation that metaphor is at the center of all problems of translation theory, semantics and linguistics.[5] Especially in English, there are a great number of metaphors. It had been said that three-quarters of the English language consists of metaphors. In order to master English and successfully complete the task of translation from English into Chinese, successful translation of English metaphor is essential. Therefore, in this paper, the author attempts to discuss the problem of translation of metaphor from English into Chinese from the cultural perspective in detail.
As far as translation theory is concerned, this paper adopts Eugene A.Nida’s functional theory, i.e. “Functional Equivalence”: the response of the receptors to the translated message=the response of the original receptors to the message when it was given in its original setting.[6]From this point, we know that for truly successful translation, biculturalism is as important as bilingualism, and even more important at times.
2. Culture and translation
2.1 Culture
“What is culture?” is a very difficult question, because culture is such a complex conception and an enormous subject that it is extremely hard for people to give an exact definition to it. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture was formulated by the English anthropologist Sir Edward Burnett Tylor in Primitive Cultures (1871). “He defined culture as ‘a(chǎn) complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society’.”[7]
Although culture is very complicated, we can roughly classify it into three categories in scope: (a) material culture which refers to all the products of manufacture;(b) instituted culture which refers to social system, religious system, ritual system, educated system and kinship system etc;(c) mental culture which refers to people’s mentalities and behaviors, their beliefs, perceptions, concepts of value, thought patterns etc,
In the view of most anthropologists, culture possesses the following features: (a) culture is socially acquired instead of biologically transmitted; (b) culture is shared among the members of a community instead of being unique to an inpidual; (c) culture is symbolic. Language is the most typical symbolic system within culture; (d) culture is integrated. Each aspect of culture is tied in with the other aspects.[8]
Since language symbolizes and reflects culture, language communication is actually a kind of cultural communication and the communication between different languages is indeed communication between different cultures. From this perspective, the translation of language is essentially the translation of culture, and translation studies should be conducted in the context of culture. In the next section, the author is going to discuss the interrelations between language, culture and translation.
2.2 Language, culture and translation
Nobody will suspect the close interrelations between language and culture. A language may be a small but indispensable part of a culture. The relation between language and culture is mutually cause and effect. They penetrate into each other and cannot exist without each other. Culture embraces and influences language. In the process of communication, the meaning of language is usually determined by its cultural context. On the other side, language is the important constituent of culture and it is also an essential tool for the reservation, communication and reflection of culture. [9] In a sense, language carries culture, mirrors culture, spreads culture and helps develop culture. It is no exaggeration to say that language is the life blood of culture and culture is the track along which language forms and develops.
Just because of the close relation between language and culture, we have to pay attention to the cultural context when we research into language. According to linguistics, the origin of human language is always connected with the origin of human and human society. Therefore, if we need to understand certain language and the laws of its development, we must closely relate it to the history of social development of this language and to the people using it and its history. The existence of culture cannot depart with its certain cultural context.[10]
As for the relation between culture and translation, the author has mentioned above. Translation is, in essence, an act of intercultural communication, and the translation of language is the translation of culture. Nida holds that both language and culture are symbolic systems, and translation is the interaction between these two systems. Thus, in translation we should not only focus on the literal meaning of words or sentences, but also pay special attention to their cultural connotations in certain cultural context. Therefore, translation studies at least contain two types: in narrow sense it is literal translation, which aims at turning the content in one language into another; in broad sense it is cultural translation, which explores in turning the cultural connotation in one language into another cultural form.[11]
So far as now, the author has illustrated the intimate interrelations between language, culture and translation. And among the relations between inpidual constituent of linguistic system and social development, the most direct one is lexicon. It is because that lexicon is most sensitive to the development of society. And metaphor, as the minor system of lexicon,is most deeply affected by social culture. As discussed in Introduction, metaphor is the common feature of human language and the foundation of mankind’s conceptual system. So when we do translation studies, metaphor is necessarily enlisted in our consideration. Although metaphor differs greatly, the acceptance of metaphor from an alien culture is possible, because human beings all live in the Earth, and they share more or less similar living environment and similar feelings and sentiments. However, the acceptance of metaphor is usually incomplete, because it is limited by the persity of culture. As we know, different nations have different culture, and in different cultural context, metaphor is surely different. What’s more thinking itself is metaphorical and metaphorical concepts constitute people’s values and thought patterns. Therefore, how to deal with metaphor in translation is a pragmatic problem in translation studies. In the following chapter, the author is going to first introduce metaphor thoroughly.
3. Metaphor
3.1 Definition of metaphor
“The word ‘metaphor’ derives from the Greek word ‘metaphora’, which means ‘transference, carrying over’. It is a very common figure of speech in English.”[12] Metaphor, whose basic constituents are tenor, vehicle and ground, uses words to indicate something different from their literal meaning-----one thing is described in terms of another so as to suggest a likeness or analogy between them.
On the definition of metaphor, different scholars and academic works give their different opinions. Next the author is going to list some of them:
(a) A figure of speech containing an implied comparison, in which a word or phrase ordinarily and primarily used of one thing is applied to another. (Webster’s New World Dictionary)[13]
(b) A figure of speech in which one thing is described in terms of another. The basic figure in poetry. A comparison is usually implicit; whereas in simile it is explicit. (A Dictionary of Literal Terms)[14]
(c) The use of one reference to a group of things that are related in a particular way in order to discover a similar relation in another group. (I.A.Richards, 1936: 89-90, The Philosophy of Rhetoric)[15]
(d)The figure of speech in which a name or descriptive term is transferred to some object different from, but analogous to, that to which it is properly applicable; an instance of this, a metaphorical expression. (Oxford English Dictionary, Second Edition, 2002)
(e) A Textbook of Translation (Peter Newmark, 1988:104) defines metaphor as follows: “By metaphor, I mean any figurative expression: the transferred sense of a physical word; the personification of an abstraction; the application of a word or collocation to what it does not literally denote, i.e., to describe one thing in terms of another. All polysemous words (a ‘heavy’ heart) and most English phrasal verbs are potentially metaphorical. Metaphors may be ‘single’-viz. one- word——or ‘extended’ (a collocation, an idiom, a sentence, a proverb, an allegory, a complete imaginative text)”[16]
(f)A figure of speech in which a word or phrase that ordinarily designates one thing is used to designate another, thus making an implicit comparison, as in “a sea of troubles” or “ All the world’s a stage”(Shakespeare) (The American Heritage of the English Language, Fourth Edition,2000)[17]
(g)A figure of speech in which a term or phrase is applied to something to which it is not literally applicable in order to suggest a resemblance, as in “A mighty fortress in our God”. (Random House Compact Unabridged Dictionary, Special Second Edition, 1996)[18]
Each of the above-quoted definitions points out more or less the essence of metaphor. The common feature of these definitions is that all of them think that metaphor is a figure of speech, containing an implicit comparison. Among the seven definitions of metaphor, the first is very concise; the second makes a contrast between simile and metaphor to point out the fundamental difference between these two rhetorical devices; the third points out that in metaphor, the tenor and the vehicle are related through their similarity in a particular way; the fourth is abstract for it provides no concrete examples to help the reader better understand the notion it intends to convey; the fifth seems to be the most comprehensive and the most specific of the above-quoted definitions as it includes several ways of manifestations which all belong to metaphor; the sixth is somewhat clear with two examples provided; the last one is quite similar with the first one.
But this thesis is mainly based on the view of George Lakeoff and Mark Johnson. “They claim in Metaphors We Live by, ‘…… metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but in thought and action.’ They point out, ‘Our ordinary conceptual system, in terms of which we both think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature.’”[19] This point of view is very consistent with I.A.Richards’ “metaphor is omnipresent principle of language” mentioned in Introduction.
3.2 Characteristics of metaphor
From the seven definitions on metaphor above and according to our knowledge of metaphor, we may conclude that metaphor possesses at least the following four characteristics:
(a) Unlike simile, metaphor doesn’t contain such linking words as “as” and “l(fā)ike”, so the comparison is implicit rather than explicit.
(b) In a metaphor, the tenor is compared to the vehicle because they share an abstract quality, which functions as a tie connecting the two together. In other words, the tenor and the vehicle possess a similar abstract feature or quality, which serves as the basis of their comparison.
(c) The tenor and vehicle are by nature different from each other, though they possess something abstract in common on which their comparison is based.
(d) The vehicle in a metaphor creates a specific image, which is usually vivid and impressive. By comparing the tenor to the vehicle, we not only get a concrete image of the tenor but also make its typical quality or feature stand out.
To sum up, the author would rather believe that metaphor is not just a matter of language, a figure of speech, which implies a resemblance between one object and another, but a cognitive mode from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, which helps people understand the world.
So far as now, this thesis has thoroughly illustrated some major factors of metaphor. In the next part, the author will pay special attention to discuss the translation of metaphor from English to Chinese from the perspective of cultural differences between Chinese and English.
4. Translation of metaphor from English into Chinese from the perspective of cultural differences between Chinese and English
4.1 Cultural translation of metaphor
As we have discussed above, metaphor is not only a matter of words, but also a kind of cognitive mode. Thus, it is not enough to explore the translatability of metaphor only from the perspective of linguistics, but also from other perspectives. “Culture is the most important one of them in that in metaphors, the semantic ingredients restricted by context can stimulate readers to associate others, especially certain major definitional ones, which can shape an image in readers’ mind, then make the imparted information more clear and vivid.”[20] While image and culture are closely linked. Therefore, it is necessary for us to discuss the translatability of metaphor from the cultural perspective.
Whether a metaphor is “translatable” (i.e. whether literal translation could create identical dimensions), how difficult it is to translate, how it can be translated and whether it should be translated at all cannot be decided by a set of abstract rules, but must depend on the structure and function of the particular metaphor within the text concerned. The translatability of any given source language metaphor depends on two factors: one is particular cultural experiences and semantic association exploited by it; the other is the extent to which these can, or cannot, be reproduced non-anomalously in target language, depending on the degree of “overlap” in each particular case. Let’s look at an example:
(1) “Don’t be scared, chickens!” came her voice with teasing gaiety.
“別害怕,你們這些膽小如鼠的東西!”只聽得她用戲謔的口氣說道。
In this example, “chickens” should not be literally translated into “小雞” in Chinese, because in western culture, “chicken” is often used to refer to a cowardly and fearful person. Thus, “膽小如鼠” is a better translation.
4.1.1 Management of cultural factors in translating English metaphors
English metaphors contain abundant and vivid cultural connotation of the nation and strongly reflect the cultural characteristics of the nation with English as its native language. The key of successful translation of English metaphors lies in the extent to which the translator understands the cultural context and the translation of the cultural features. Thus, the translator should try to master the source and cultural context of English metaphors as much as possible, which is very necessary to exactly understand their connotations and the cultural characteristics they reflect. Then the translator can use proper methods to translate these connotations and characteristics in order to achieve the most faithful and perfect translation.
As to translation standard and approach, in foreign countries, there are Nida’s “formal correspondence” and “functional equivalence”, and C.F.Newmark’s “semantic translation” and “communicational translation”; in China, there exists “direct translation” and “indirect translation”. Although they are different standards, all of them do not conflict with each other but complement with each other. Therefore, there are many approaches to translating metaphors. While in the process of translating metaphors, which approach is the best choice? It will depend on the nature and position of metaphors in text, on the relation between metaphor and context and on the type of the text itself.
Above all, during the process of translation of metaphors, the translator should try to flexibly keep the cultural features while translating meaning. As a result of cultural similarities and differences, the target language and the source language have different corresponding relations: sometimes full-corresponding, sometimes semi-corresponding, and sometimes non-corresponding. Such a phenomenon will further affect the accuracy of translation. In fact, any translation may bring about the loss of meaning and/or image. Therefore, we should adopt different complemental methods in order to achieve what Nida called “functional equivalence”.[21]
4.1.2 Cultural connotation of metaphor
“Both Nida and Newmark classify linguistic culture into five categories:(a) ecology (b) material culture (c) social culture (d) religious culture (e) linguistic culture.”[22] It clearly tells us that: cultural information carried by all kinds of languages is certain to be different, because the ecology, material, social and religious environment which different nations own are impossible to be identical. The cultural differences directly influence the thinking mode and value orientation of human being, thus become the main reason for the differences of metaphorical concepts of the two nations. Through researches on metaphors, we can find the cultural differences between Chinese and English.
Firstly, metaphors reflect geological and natural conditions of a nation. Different nations have different geological environment and national circumstances, and this difference often finds expression in metaphors. For example (2), when describing the emergence of a large amount of new objects, Chinese always say “雨后春筍般地”, while in English people usually say “grow like mushrooms” (像蘑菇一般). From this example, we can find that for the same phenomenon, Chinese and English use different images to describe. The reason just lies in the different environment of the two nations:China abounds with bamboo shoots, while the English speaking countries with mushrooms.
Different climates also play a very important role in the use of metaphor. In the eye of Chinese, summer is an uncomfortable season when the blazing sun bakes the earth all the time but sometimes it suddenly rains heavily without any notice. So when seeing the metaphor “Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day? Thou are more lovely and more temperate.” in Shakespeare’s 18th sonnet to praise his friend, most Chinese may feel confused. It is very hard for us to connect the summer with a good friend. At this time, we need to make researches on the climate of Britain. Britain lies in the Northern temperate zone and is near to the Atlantic Ocean, so it has an oceanic climate and its summer is warm but never hot. In the mind of English, the summer is the most pleasant season to live in, which forms sharp contrast with the continental climate decided by the location of China.[23] Therefore, there is no doubt that the same wind triggers different associations in Chinese and English.
Besides climate, terrain and species of animals and plants, distribution of mineral deposits is an important factor for us to consider in terms of geological conditions. The ancient poem “問君能有幾多愁,恰似一江春水向東流” reflects China’s terrain is high in the west and low in the east; and the English idiom “carry coals to Newcastle” (近乎做徒勞無功的事) arises from the background that Newcastle is an industrial city in England’s northeast, famous for coal exportation.[24]
Secondly, metaphors reflect traditional culture and values. People in different nations have different ways of life, thinking, culture and mentalities. As shown above, metaphor and culture have close relations. Through metaphor, people can well understand the objective world. And metaphor, to some extent, reflects and determines the shaping of a nation’s culture and values. It is because that when people make metaphors on certain images, their views of culture and values must be manifested in these metaphors consciously or unconsciously. For example, in Chinese culture the pine, the bamboo and the plum are called three gentlemen in winter. Because the three of them can survive the extremely cold winter and remain vital. For Chinese, they represent a noble spirit. While in English culture, they are just three common plants and cannot give people any association.
People in Chinese and English culture have different understanding of color. For example (3), “red” is the kind of color Chinese admire and has the meaning of luck, success, faithfulness and wealth, etc. This phenomenon can be explained from the angle of culture. In Chinese culture, Chinese special admiration for red originates from people’s worship and desire for the sun in ancient times. And our forebears’ attachment for the red sunshine is native. Therefore the positive meaning represented by red naturally comes into being. For example, in ancient times, the house, the clothes, and the carts the influential officials lived in , wore and sat in were respectively called “朱門”, “朱衣”, “朱軒”.In modern times, people use “分紅” to refer to the profits distributed to the business cooperators. On the contrary, in English culture, red is a negative word. Because red is also the color of blood, and in the mind of English, blood is the liquid of life, once one bleeds, the flower of life will soon wither. Therefore, they often associate “red” with “violence” and “danger”. Then there are “the red rules of tooth and claw”, “red revenge”, “a red battle”, “red hand” etc.[25] All of these expressions show that red is a kind of unlucky color in English culture.
Besides, because of traditional cultural differences, metaphors on love in Chinese and English are entirely different. For example (4), in both Chinese and English, there is a metaphorical concept——“Love is a journey”(愛情是旅程). Then English say “we cannot turn back now”; in Chinese, there is a similar expression: “我們再也回不去了”《十八春》(張愛玲). However, the connotations of these two expressions are completely opposite. In the former, love is compared to journey metaphorically, which means that lovers must overcome the difficulties in the love journey together, otherwise they cannot maintain their love. What the expression emphasizes is the determination that lovers strive shoulder by shoulder. While in the latter, the expression implies the speaker’s confusion. Though the lovers regret for their departing love, they cannot go back like before any more.[26]
Thirdly, some metaphors have historical and cultural backgrounds. In both Chinese and English, there are many expressions implying rich historical and cultural backgrounds and produce various associations. For example (5), in Chinese, we say “說曹操,曹操就到”, “暗渡陳倉”, “東施效顰”, “臥薪嘗膽”, “負(fù)荊請罪”, “四面楚歌”. Each of these allusions and idioms contains a great deal of historical and cultural information. While English say “meet one’s Waterloo” (慘遭失敗), “ That’s all Greek to me” (一竅不通). The story of “meet one’s Waterloo” can be tracked back to June8, 1815, when the allied forces of Britain and Germany crushed Napolean’s troops in Waterloo, south of Belgium. Later, this expression can be used to describe any situation when one encounters a total defeat.
English historical allusions mostly originated from Greek myth. For example (6), as long as we say “銀河”, “天河”, we will associate the folk story about that the Altair and the Vega meet on over this gutter. While English will call “the milky way”, which comes from the Greek myth. It refers to both the road formed by the dripping milk when Queen Hera fed Hercules, a warrior with great strength, and a milky road from the human world into the palace in the universe.[27]
Fourthly, metaphors give expression to people’s way of living. Researches on the connotative meanings of animals in Chinese and English cultures also reveal the impact of metaphor on people’s living. For example (7), in Chinese, we often encounter such expressions like “像老黃牛一樣干活”, “氣壯如?!?, “鞭打快牛” etc. While if expressing the same meaning, English will say “work like a horse”, “as strong as a horse”, “flog a willing horse”. Why Chinese and English use two different images? It is because that usually Chinese use cattle to plow, while English horses. Cattle and horses respectively become the good helper of Chinese and English in farming, so there are usages about them above.[28] And since horses in ancient China are mainly used for riding and war, the associative meaning of horse in Chinese is that it can be ridden and it runs fast, which gives rise to the expression like “馬上”, “馬到成功” and “一馬當(dāng)先”.
Fifthly, metaphors reflect people’s religious beliefs. Religion is an important source of metaphorical expression. As Christianity is the main spiritual support of westerners and is critical for the formation of English culture, it has penetrated every aspect of English social life, including the English language. And it is manifested most obviously in English metaphors. In fact, “most English metaphors come from religious beliefs and fairy stories. Many characters and events of the Bible make up a large part of English words with unique connotations, and many images of this kind are widely used in metaphors.”[29]
e.g. (8) The two-party system is the apple of the capitalists’ eye, so far as maintaining their political control of the workers is concerned.
就資產(chǎn)階級維護對于工人的政治控制而言,兩黨制是資本家的寶貝。
In this sentence, the metaphor “the apple of the eye” (掌上明珠) comes from The Old Testament of the Bible, “He kept him as the apple of his eye.”(保護他如同保護眼中的瞳人). In ancient times, people noticed that pupil in eyes was just like an apple, so they called pupil as “apple of the eye”. As pupil is a very precious part in human body, “apple of the eye” is also used to refer to the person or thing most liked.
Besides, expressions, such as Noah’s Ark, olive branch, Paradise, Forbidden fruit, Adam’s apple and a Juda, also have rich metaphorical meanings.
Instead of Christianity, most of Chinese people believe in Confucianism and Taoism. Like those in English, expressions related to Chinese religious beliefs find their way to metaphors such as “臨時抱佛腳”, “道高一尺,魔高一丈”, “放下屠刀,立地成佛”, “做一天和尚,撞一天鐘”, “不看僧面看佛面” and “借花獻(xiàn)佛”. After repeated use, the metaphorical meanings of these expressions have already overstepped their literal meaning as religious words.
4.2 Corresponding relations and approaches to the translation of English metaphors
As we know, every nation has its own unique social and cultural backgrounds. There exists great cultural differences between nations, especially in modern times, thanks to the development of advanced and convenient means of communication and transportation, the inter-cultural communication becomes more and more frequent. Meanwhile, because people in different nations must have some similar experience to some extent, the cultural overlap cannot be avoided under this condition.[30]
As shown above, language, especially metaphor has close relation with culture. Metaphor widely exists in both Chinese and English, and typically represents the rich and unique culture of each nation, while the fact that different nations often have different ways of making metaphors poses problems for translators. In the last section, also the most important section, based on a large number of convincing examples and from the angle of cultural analysis, the author is going to discuss the corresponding relations between Chinese and English metaphors, and offer several approaches to the translation of metaphor from English into Chinese.
(i) Full- corresponding relation
So-called full-corresponding is, in fact, such a kind of relation that the object and the image of a metaphor are fully corresponding in Chinese and English. The reason why there is full-corresponding relation in Chinese and English is the cultural overlap we have mentioned above. Although different countries have different cultures, traditions and ways of thinking, we still have a lot in common in using metaphor, because we human beings live in the same material world. As mammals, human beings’ basic living necessities and activities, regardless of their races, are fundamentally the same, or tend to be the same. People from different cultures also share much identical understanding of the nature. Our living environment, such as ecological environment and climate change, as well as our own bodies provide us with the possibility to have same understanding of the outside world and ourselves. At the same time, the common cognitive experience enables people to have basically same mentality to accept metaphors that are fresh to them.[31]
Under the condition of full-corresponding relation, there are two approaches to the translation of this kind of metaphor:
(a) Literal translation-----reproducing the same image in the target language provided that the image has comparable frequency and currency in the appropriate register. That’s to say, through literal translation, the image in source language is entirely retained and the information and effect brought about by the image also can be achieved in target language. “The advantage of literal translation is to enable the readers of the target language to be exposed to and gradually accept the cultural feature of the source language.”[32] For the translation of one-word metaphors, this approach is most useful.
e.g. (9) a ray of hope 一線希望
(10) Chain reaction 連鎖反應(yīng)
(11) the white terror
(12) cold winds
冷言冷語
While for the complex metaphors with a high degree of cultural overlap, this approach is also feasible.
e.g. (13) to go through fire and water 赴湯蹈火
(14) to head a wolf into the house 引狼入室
(15) to give somebody green light 給某人開綠燈
Also some sentences with metaphors are translated by this approach.
e.g. (16) Life is a journey .人生是一種旅途。
(17) All the world’s a stage. (Shakespeare) 整個世界是個舞臺。
(18) The tree of liberty must be refreshed from time to time with the blood of patriots and tyrants. It is its natural manure.
自由之樹須常以愛國志士和暴君的血來澆灌,這些鮮血是自由之樹的天然肥料
(b)Translation of metaphor by simile, retaining the image. As a matter of fact, metaphor is condensed simile. Aristotle believed that simile derives from metaphor and pointed out that simile is a kind of metaphor. They are identical in essence. This approach can be used when target language is not emotive in character. Under this condition, this way can modify the shock of a metaphor.
e.g. (19) a thunder of applause 雷鳴般的掌聲
(20) a lion at home, a mouse abroad 在家如獅,在外如鼠
(21) Love and cough cannot be hid. 愛情像咳嗽一樣是掩蓋不了的。
(22) A good surgeon must have an eagle’s eye, a lion’s heart and a lady’s hand.[33]
好的外科醫(yī)生必須有像鷹般的視力,獅子般的膽量和仕女般的巧手。
The contents above are about the approach to the translation of metaphor under the condition of full-corresponding relation. However, cultural overlap doesn’t often occur. In most cases, due to the differences in history, geological conditions, ways of life, traditions and habits, English and Chinese people don’t always have identical thinking, understanding, views and opinions on the same object. Therefore, not many full-corresponding relations can be found, and more metaphors in Chinese and English have semi-corresponding and non-corresponding relations.
(ii) Semi-corresponding relation [39]
In both Chinese and English, we often come across that different words are used for the same metaphorical meaning and many metaphors have the same metaphorical meaning but different literal meaning (images are different). “Metaphors of this kind only partly convey the corresponding cultural features of their equivalents, so the relations of these metaphorical equivalents are called semi-corresponding relations.”[34] The reason why semi-corresponding relations happen is because people from different cultures have different associations of the same or different images. In view of this, there are two approaches to translation of metaphor of this kind.
(a) Substitution of the image in source language with a standard target language image.[35] When the image in source language cannot convey the real meaning in target language, even clashes with target language culture, this approach is adaptable. At this time, we should try to understand both the superficial structure and the deep connotation of the metaphor in source language at first, and then fully display them by a proper image in target language that has similar metaphorical meaning.
e.g.(23) birds of a feather 一丘之貉
(24) lame duck 落選的議員
(25) swan song 最后的言行;最后的作品
(26) Better be the head of a dog than the tail of a lion. 寧為雞頭, 勿為牛后
(27) Every life has its roses and thorns. 人生有苦有樂
(28) Money makes the mare go. 有錢能使鬼推磨
(b) Reproducing metaphor with simile (or metaphor) plus sense or note.[36] As a result of social and cultural factors, sometimes in translation of metaphor from English into Chinese, although the image in source language is retained, it is still hard for Chinese readers to understand because the image is of obvious cultural features of English nation or implies certain historical events or character allusions. Meanwhile, in translating some English metaphors, whose connotations may be lost if through direct translation, we cannot find equivalents in Chinese. For metaphors of this type, especially for a number of names of people and places with cultural connotations, we usually adopt this approach to translation.
e.g. (29) The plan, which seems so promising, turned out to be a Pandora’s box.
看起來如此有希望的計劃, 結(jié)果卻是一個帶來不幸的潘多拉盒子。
(30)The die is cast. 骰子一出, 大局已定。
(31 ) A little pot is soon hot. 壺小易熱, 量小易怒。
(iii) Non- corresponding relation
As Chinese and English have their own unique culture, many metaphorical concepts only exist in either Chinese or English. In addition, there are metaphors that may have similar literal meanings, but their metaphorical meanings are totally different.[37] Metaphors of this kind have non-corresponding relations and we should adopt the following two approaches to the translation of these metaphors:
(a) Conversion of metaphor to sense. For certain metaphors, the degree of correspondence between source language and target language is very low. Under this condition, we should take connotation as the first and image as the second. That’s to say, in translation of metaphors, sometimes we have to change the image in source language in order to correctly express the connotations. Under this condition, the approach of conversion of metaphor to sense can be applied.
e.g. (32) the heel of Achilles 致命的弱點
(33) Love me, love my dog. 愛屋及烏
(34) Homer sometimes nods. 智者千慮,必有一失
(35) I supported him from the egg to the apples though he once told me off.
雖然他曾責(zé)備過我,但是我自始至終支持他。
(b) Deletion. Just from the literal meaning of “deletion”, we know that through this approach, the metaphor is deleted in translation. If a metaphor can find no metaphorical equivalent in Chinese, and after a thorough analysis of the text, we find it is redundant and its function has been fulfilled in other parts of the text, we can choose to directly delete it. Through this approach, the original aesthetic value may be lost and the force of infection in source language may be lessened. Of course, sometimes it is inevitable. But the translation can complement the loss brought about by deletion of images through other means. The four-word idioms in Chinese often can play this role.[38]
e.g. (36) The ship is plowing the sea. 船在乘風(fēng)破浪。
(37) By the winter of 1942 their resistance to the Nazi terror had become only a shadow. (Winston Churchill)
到了1942年冬季,他們對于納粹恐怖統(tǒng)治的抵抗已經(jīng)名存實亡了。
(38) I have a dream that one day even the state of Mississippi, a desert state sweltering with the heat of injustice and oppression will be transformed into an oasis of freedom and justice. (Martin Luther King, Jr. I Have a Dream)
我有一個夢想,有一天,甚至那倍受屈辱和迫害的凄涼的密西西比州,也將改造成自由與公正的綠洲。
In example (38), the Mississippi is compared to a desert which forms a sharp contrast with oasis. However, in the translation, the desert is not translated, but replaced by “凄涼的” to express the speaker’s intention. In doing so, the translation can avoid misunderstanding that Mississippi is a real desert state. 5. Conclusion
Based on the belief that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but also a cognitive mode, the main idea of the thesis is to talk about the translation of metaphors from English into Chinese from the perspective of cultural differences between Chinese and English. For this purpose, the body of this thesis is pided into three parts. The first part, the author mainly analyzes the interrelation between language, culture and translation. The second part introduces some major factors related to metaphor, including definition, characteristics and classification. The third part, also the most important part of this thesis, thoroughly illustrates the translation of metaphors from English into Chinese from the perspective of cultural differences, including cultural connotation of metaphors and approaches to translation of English metaphors in terms of the corresponding relations.
As metaphor has rich cultural connotations, in order to achieve successful translation of English metaphors, a translator should cultivate and continually enhance his own cultural awareness. This requires a translator to have both bilingual competence and bicultural or even multi-cultural knowledge in order to adapt to effective communication in different cultural context. The author hopes the six approaches to translation of English metaphors will be helpful. They are: literal translation, reproducing the same image in the target language; translation of metaphor by simile, retaining the image; substitution of the image in the source language with a standard target language image; reproducing metaphor with simile (or metaphor) plus sense or note; conversion of metaphor to sense; and deletion.
Of course, there must be many improper places and immature views in this thesis. The author sincerely wishes for inpidual reader’s criticism and correction.
Bibliography
[1]王佐良. 翻譯中的文化比較[M]. 北京:中國對外翻譯出版公司. 2000,1 P1
[2]劉國忠. 隱喻與跨文化交際[J]. 安徽大學(xué)學(xué)報(哲學(xué)社會科學(xué)版),2003,5 P121
[3]Zhang Xiuguo. English Rhetoric. Qinghua Unversity Press and Beijing Translation Unversity Press, 2005 P161
[4]Hu Shuzhong. English Rhetoric. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001 P175
[5]張建新. 從文化角度看英語隱喻的漢譯[D]. 中國期刊網(wǎng). 外交學(xué)院,2004 P3
[6]毛榮貴. 新世紀(jì)大學(xué)英漢翻譯研究[M] . 上海:上海交通大學(xué)出版社.2004 P13
[7]David Katan. Translation Cultures: An Introduction for Translators, Interpreters and Mediators. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004 P16
[8]王振亞. 語言與文化[M].北京:高等教育出版社.2004 P10-14
[9]張治英. 英語隱喻形成的社會文化背景及其翻譯[J]. 湖南商學(xué)院學(xué)報(雙月刊),1999,5 P77
[10]同[9] P77
[11]王 寧. 文化研究語境下的翻譯研究[M].(載《文化與翻譯》)P24
[12]同[3] P161
[13]李鑫華. 英語修辭格詳論[M]. 上海:上海外語教育出版社,2001 P18
[14]同[13] P18
[15]同[4] P176
[16]周軼. 英語隱喻及其漢譯[D]. 中國期刊網(wǎng). 上海師范大學(xué), 2004 P2
[17]同[16] P1
[18]同[16] P1
[19]同[3] P161
[20]朱俊松,秦濤. 形象化語言的譯法——論英語隱喻的可譯性和翻譯方法[J].華東船舶工業(yè)學(xué)院學(xué)報(社會科學(xué)版),2004,3 P65
[21]同[9] P78
[22]李 健. 英漢語隱喻的跨文化對比及翻譯[J].青海師范大學(xué)出版社(哲學(xué)社會科學(xué)版),2002,2 P131
[23]陳 鳳. 中英文化差異對漢英語言表達(dá)的影響[J]. 中國地質(zhì)大學(xué)學(xué)報(社會科學(xué)版),2001,1 P43
[24]程同春. 英語隱喻的思考與翻譯[J]. 中國科技翻譯,2005,2 P39
[25]紀(jì)曉靜. 漢英語中“紅”之隱喻對比分析[J]. 修辭學(xué)習(xí),2003,4 P48
[26]曲 紅. 中英文化中的愛情隱喻[J]. 株洲工學(xué)院學(xué)報,2002,5 P51
[27]同[28] P44
[28]同[28] P44
[29]谷彥君. 英語的社會文化背景與英語隱喻的形成[J]. 佳木斯大學(xué)社會科學(xué)學(xué)報,2002,1 P51
[30]蔣榮豐. 論英漢隱喻互譯中的對應(yīng)問題[J]. 江蘇教育學(xué)院學(xué)報,2004,6 P114
[31]同[35] P114
[32]同[29] P38
[33]同[29] P38
[34]同[35] P114
[35]同[29] P38
[36]同[29] P38
篇8
【關(guān)鍵詞】英漢植物習(xí)語;喻義;文化差異
一、引言
習(xí)語是語言的精華,是人類智慧的結(jié)晶,具有濃厚的地方和民族色彩,習(xí)語來源于生活,是人們在勞動過程中創(chuàng)造的,蘊含著大量的文化信息。從與植物相關(guān)的英漢習(xí)語可以反映出民族特征,反映出該民族的生活習(xí)慣,思維方式,反映出民族的歷史和文化背景。
由于英漢文化的差異較大,再加上植物分布的情況不一樣,英漢植物喻詞的意義異多同少。根據(jù)2002年何善芬對陸谷孫的《英漢大詞典》和羅竹風(fēng)的《漢語大詞典》中所列的植物喻詞的統(tǒng)計,英漢常見的植物詞有495個,英語有172個,而漢語只有44個。
在跨文化交流中,植物詞作為一種符號系統(tǒng)在英漢兩種語言里具有不同的用途及文化價值、文化意蘊,這就要求人們要了解使用該語言國家的文化傳統(tǒng)、價值觀念、風(fēng)土人情,并把握和細(xì)究植物詞語的意義以及它所承載的文化信息,從而有效地進(jìn)行跨文化的言語交際。
二、英漢習(xí)語中植物詞的喻義對比
在英漢文學(xué)史上都有志士仁人以花卉草木為題,寄托情志、抒思的千古傳誦的不朽名篇。本部分主要探討英漢習(xí)語中植物詞喻義的相同之處和不同之處。
1. 英語中有而漢語中無的植物
蘋果(apple)是人們喜愛的最為常見的水果,英語中其喻義特別豐富。在美國棒球運動特別流行和普及,因而人們用最普通的蘋果喻指棒球運動。如:He likes to play apple.(他喜歡打棒球)。蘋果又常用來俗稱“同伴、家伙”。如:He is a real slick apple.(他真是個狡詐的家伙)。蘋果還可以喻指“炸彈”、“討好巴結(jié)的人或行為”等(何善芬,2003:171)。而在漢語中蘋果據(jù)說是張騫出使西域時帶回的,它在漢語中僅指水果而已,沒有什么特殊的喻義。
2. 漢語中有而英語中無的植物詞
竹(bamboo),中空有節(jié),具有挺拔堅硬的特性,因此,我國古今的人們常將竹贊譽為:不剛不柔,質(zhì)樸無華;高節(jié)虛心,亭亭正直生。竹子的“空心”代表謙遜,它的瘦削和常青代表堅韌不拔和年邁高齡。竹節(jié)常暗示做學(xué)問更上一層樓。中國人喜歡種竹、賞竹、詠竹,竹文化相當(dāng)發(fā)達(dá)。竹還象征永恒的青春和不可征服的力量,人們用“雨后春筍”來形容新生事物的大量出現(xiàn),英美人則說spring up like mushrooms,因為英國沒有竹,甚至連英語中的bamboo一詞也是外來語,所以英語里是沒有用竹子作喻體的。
3. 英漢中喻義相同的植物詞
玫瑰(rose)在英漢語言中都用來比喻美好和愛情。例如:roses all the way(諸事順利,一帆風(fēng)順),這個表達(dá)據(jù)說是來源于英國詩人Robert Browning寫過的一首詩:It was roses,roses all the way. 詩句中常出現(xiàn)玫瑰的倩影,如:著名詩人Robert Burns曾借玫瑰來歌頌愛情:O,my love is like a red,red rose. 杜牧在詩句中稱玫瑰為“朵朵精神葉葉柔,雨晴香拂醉人頭”。
4. 英漢中喻義不同的植物詞
柳樹(willow)早春發(fā)芽,在漢文化中常用柳樹喻指春天的來臨和春光明媚,《詩經(jīng)》有云:“昔我往矣,楊柳依依,今我來思,雨雪霏霏”。柳枝還是朋友分離時候的信物,一種離別之情的寄托。而在西方文化中,英語willow比喻失落、死亡,有戴柳葉花圈以悼死者的習(xí)俗,所以to wear the willow為“痛哭心愛的人,思念親人”之意。
三、英漢植物習(xí)語喻義體現(xiàn)的文化差異
習(xí)語之所以最能鮮明地反映一個民族的文化特點是和這種歷史文化的沉積分不開的。因此,考察習(xí)語可以看到英漢文化的特定社會背景及發(fā)展的文化軌跡,從而比較準(zhǔn)確地把握英漢語言中的文化差異。
1. 地理環(huán)境
英國是一個島國,英國人喜歡海洋,所以英語許多習(xí)語來源于航海業(yè)。中國雖臨海,而且海岸線漫長,但航海業(yè)一直比較落后,與航海有關(guān)的習(xí)語很少。中國農(nóng)業(yè)人口眾多,是一個典型的農(nóng)業(yè)大國,所以漢語習(xí)語中有很大一部分是反映農(nóng)耕生活的,如“五谷豐登,樹大招風(fēng)”等。由于地理、生態(tài)環(huán)境的不同,英漢習(xí)語的許多比喻形象也具有明顯的差異。漢語說“雨后春筍”,英語卻說“spring up like mushroom”。
2.
中國以儒學(xué)為中心,儒、道、佛相融合的思想體系在人們心中扎根,規(guī)范著人們的行為與認(rèn)識。在西方,基督教起著特別重要的作用,人們將上帝視為理想的化身。漢語中有不少植物習(xí)語和佛教有關(guān),如:借花獻(xiàn)佛,檀越,檀林等等。英語中也有不少植物習(xí)語和基督教有關(guān),很多都來源于《圣經(jīng)》,如:the apple of one’s eye(珍愛的人;掌上明珠)。
3. 民族審美觀
西方民族的審美心理偏重于再現(xiàn),即注重審美的真實性,由于它的理性化,失去不少審美情趣;中國的審美心理也是以人為中心,因而中國的審美情趣相對而言比較豐富。英語在歷史上曾受到斯堪的納維亞語、法語、拉丁語、希臘語、德語等的影響,引入外來的植物喻詞。而漢民族由于豐富的歷史文化及長期的歷史積淀,形成了本民族對某種植物特有的情感與文化,產(chǎn)生特有的詞義,如松竹、松鶴等。這種植物詞與動物詞,植物詞與植物詞構(gòu)成并列式的復(fù)合名詞,具有喻義的情況在英語里是不多見的。在漢語中,有不少能帶給我們積極的心理聯(lián)想或富有審美情趣的語言卻未必能引起英美人的共鳴。
4. 思維方式
東方民族的思維方式被描述為“整體的”、“辯證的”、“具象的”、“主觀的”和“模糊的”;而西方民族的思維方式被描述為“具體的”、“分析的”、“抽象的”、“客觀的”和“精確的”。東方人注重實踐經(jīng)驗,注重整體思考,西方人注重科學(xué)、理性,重視分析、實證。
英語中,意義引申的基礎(chǔ)是思維方式即縱向發(fā)展、微觀分解,方式是提喻,意義范圍較小;漢語中,引申的基礎(chǔ)是思維方式的橫向聯(lián)系,注重形似,方式是隱喻,意義范圍較大。如:clove(丁香)英語中的引申意義為“丁香花”、“調(diào)味品”、“丁香紫,淡紫色”;漢語中的引申意義為“女人的舌頭”、“丁香花狀的紐扣”、“丁香花狀的耳飾”。
四、總結(jié)
與植物相關(guān)的英漢習(xí)語與其它方面的英漢習(xí)語一樣反映出社會文化的一個側(cè)面,滲透著濃郁的文化氣息,展示出民族語言文化的發(fā)展與演變。各民族不僅使用其字面上的意義(1iteral meaning),而且使用其比喻意義(figurative meaning)。隨著社會的發(fā)展,將會有更多的與植物相關(guān)的習(xí)語產(chǎn)生,只有認(rèn)真研究和比較英漢習(xí)語中植物詞喻義的差異,理解習(xí)語中植物的表層意思,而且要清楚其深層含義,才能有效地傳遞習(xí)語的文化信息,避免因文化差異引起誤解和沖突,促進(jìn)跨文化交流。
參考文獻(xiàn):
篇9
關(guān)鍵詞:牛津英語;文化差異;滲透
中圖分類號:G620 文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)識碼:A 文章編號:1003-2851(2012)-06-0113-01
一、引言
小學(xué)階段英語教學(xué)的主要目的不僅是教會學(xué)生掌握語言知識,更重要的是培養(yǎng)學(xué)生用英語進(jìn)行交際的能力,確切地說是培養(yǎng)學(xué)生成功地同外國人進(jìn)行跨文化的交際。語言學(xué)家呂必松曾指出:“所謂交際文化,我們可以理解為是隱含在語言系統(tǒng)中的反映一個民族的價值觀念、是非標(biāo)準(zhǔn)、社會習(xí)俗、心理狀態(tài)、思維方式等文化因素?!币虼?,我們奮戰(zhàn)在一線的小學(xué)英語教師都要非常重視學(xué)生跨文化交際能力的培養(yǎng),真正地激發(fā)學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)英語的興趣,從而提高學(xué)生英語的綜合水平。
二、如何在小學(xué)英語課堂中滲透文化差異
(一)從教室環(huán)境入手
針對小學(xué)生年紀(jì)小、求知欲和好奇心重,喜歡觀察身邊事物的特點。我們英語老師可以積極主動地布置教室,適當(dāng)設(shè)計一些英語名人名言,張貼學(xué)生自制的英語手抄報,體現(xiàn)出英語文化的氛圍,吸引學(xué)生的注意并激起他們對英語學(xué)習(xí)的興趣。教師也可定時開展小型的英語角活動,為學(xué)生提供練習(xí)語言的環(huán)境,也可通過英語角鍛煉他們的膽量和交際能力。如果有條件利用活動課時間給他們觀看一些他們感興趣的英文原聲動畫片,不僅能給他們一個良好的模仿學(xué)習(xí)對象,還能使他們從中學(xué)到很多英語的俗語及文化特色。
(二)從生活入手
我們一線的英語教師可以根據(jù)教學(xué)目標(biāo)和內(nèi)容隨機介紹一些與日常生活密切相關(guān)的英語國家的文化知識,激發(fā)學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)英語的興趣。如在進(jìn)行牛津小學(xué)英語3B Unit 10 Do you play…?的教學(xué)時,可以讓學(xué)生收集一些除書本上以外和體育運動有關(guān)系的單詞:Olympic Games(奧運會),tennis(網(wǎng)球),skating(溜冰)…又如4B Unit7 At a snack bar,可以讓學(xué)生準(zhǔn)備ice-cream(冰淇淋),hamburger(漢堡),sandwich(三明治)這些他們平常經(jīng)常會吃的英語國家中最常見的飲料和食品的實物,培養(yǎng)學(xué)生從自己身邊去發(fā)現(xiàn)英語、學(xué)習(xí)英語的能力。每逢過節(jié)的時候就可以讓學(xué)生們?nèi)ナ占恍╆P(guān)于這個節(jié)日的資料,記下來,課堂上進(jìn)行交流,從中學(xué)生能學(xué)習(xí)到關(guān)于英語節(jié)日的傳統(tǒng)習(xí)慣及文化習(xí)俗。
(三)從活動入手
學(xué)習(xí)和掌握英語,僅僅靠有限的課堂教學(xué)時間是遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)不夠的,我們教師還要積極利用課外時間,組織一些與學(xué)生日常生活密切相關(guān)的、富有英語色彩的活動來激發(fā)學(xué)生的興趣,使他們產(chǎn)生了解外國文化的愿望。正如一位英語教育家所說:“Tell me, I will forget.Show me,I may remember.Involve me,I will understand.”在教學(xué)實踐中,豐富學(xué)生對于英語文化知識的途徑有很多。如:舉辦圣誕晚會、英語小故事演講比賽、觀看英語電影、卡通片;收集有關(guān)英語國家的飲食習(xí)俗,重要的節(jié)日,傳統(tǒng)的文娛和體育活動等資料。
正是通過這一點一滴地滲透英語國家的文化知識,學(xué)生才能感受到一點一點的culture。通過讓學(xué)生感受、體驗、理解、接受來自英語國家的文化,進(jìn)而促進(jìn)他們文化意識的形成。
(四)從情境教學(xué)入手,培養(yǎng)英語思維能力
要培養(yǎng)學(xué)生跨文化交際能力,就必須重視培養(yǎng)學(xué)生對英語文化的意識,不斷提高學(xué)生對中西方文化的敏感性,培養(yǎng)學(xué)生英語思維能力。小學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)英語時,往往會受到母語的干擾。所以,在課堂上,通過組織一些以學(xué)生為主體、創(chuàng)造模擬情景的練習(xí)活動,如pair work,role play,group discussion,presentation等,一方面充分發(fā)揮了學(xué)生的主體性,激發(fā)他們的積極參與性,另一方面也為他們提供了口頭鍛煉的機會。通過創(chuàng)造模擬情景,使學(xué)生身臨其境,掌握如何用英語打電話、看病、購物等一些基本生活語言技能。這種情景教學(xué)不僅使學(xué)生對所學(xué)內(nèi)容記憶深刻,而且當(dāng)學(xué)生在生活中碰到類似的語境時,便能從容自如。
三、結(jié)束語
綜上所述,在英語教學(xué)過程中,教師不僅要認(rèn)真?zhèn)湔n,把握教材,還要仔細(xì)琢磨課文所反映的英語國家的文化、風(fēng)俗習(xí)慣、風(fēng)土人情等等,只有這樣,才能使學(xué)生真正獲得英語知識和交際英語能力。所以,學(xué)習(xí)英語的過程,也是了解和掌握英語文化背景知識的過程。對文化背景的掌握程度直接影響到一個人的英語使用能力,是能否得體運用語言的前提。因此,這就要求我們教師也要不斷學(xué)習(xí)、不斷更新,提高自己的文化修養(yǎng)和文化意識,要熟悉自己國家的文化和學(xué)生現(xiàn)有的知識水平及接受能力,使中西文化形成對比,更有效地進(jìn)行文化教學(xué),發(fā)揮教師的示范性作用。
參考文獻(xiàn)
[1]耿衛(wèi)忠.西方傳統(tǒng)節(jié)日與文化[M].太原:書海出版社,2006.
[2]鄧炎昌.現(xiàn)代美國社會與文化[M].北京:高等教育出版社,1995.
[3]許果,梅林.文化差異與跨文化交際能力的培養(yǎng)[J].重慶大學(xué)學(xué)報,2002.
篇10
【摘 要】中國與美國有著各自不同的文化氛圍。中國文化重集體,美國文化重個人;中國文化重綜合,美國文化重分析;中國與美國具有不同的風(fēng)俗習(xí)慣和宗教信仰,在非語言交際上也各有不同。因此,研究文化差異,研究正確的跨文化交際行為已成為不可忽略的問題。
關(guān)鍵詞 中國文化;美國文化;差異
文化是指一個所具有的獨特的信仰、習(xí)慣、制度、性格、思維方式等的總模式,是一個社會的整個生活方式,一個的全部活動方式。它為一個社會的全體成員所共有,也為這個語言社會所獨有。文化不僅一種社會出現(xiàn)的是人們在長期為創(chuàng)造過程中形成的產(chǎn)物,而且是一種歷史的沉淀物。雖然隨著人類的進(jìn)步和社會的發(fā)展,國家與國家之間的交流也日趨頻繁,中美兩國也是如此,但中美兩國依舊存在著文化差異,主要表現(xiàn)在:
1.文化觀念的差異
中國的核心還是“思想”二字,歷來主張長幼有序、尊卑有別,也就是說,每一件事情都要遵從特定的規(guī)矩,并且受到等級觀念的制約。例如,晚輩見到長輩、學(xué)生見到老師,為表示尊重都要主動打招呼。而美國文化主要傳承了基督教教義中的思想,不重視等級觀念。他們更注重個人權(quán)益,所追求的是人人平等,在晚輩和長輩方面沒有過多的禮節(jié)。對長輩、老師都可以直呼其名,他們可以與長輩爭論問題,或者表達(dá)自己的觀點。
在獨具一格的中國文化中,人情占有很重要的位置。人情在中華文化中有其一定的社會結(jié)構(gòu)性,人情與面子是相互關(guān)聯(lián)的,講情面的人會以心換心、將心比心地報答別人的情誼。因此,在中華文化中,自我審視是在人與人之間的情誼及相互交往的情誼中成立和實現(xiàn)的。中國人重視家族及階層,講究門當(dāng)戶對。中華文化重視集體主義,講究先集體后個人的觀念。人們之間相互信任,同舟共濟,當(dāng)個人利益與集體利益發(fā)生沖突的時候,往往集體利益總放在第一位。在權(quán)衡個人主張行為時,時常是以群體利益和注重和諧為標(biāo)準(zhǔn)加以維護,這一點與美國文化大不相同。美國人主張個人自由,重視個人潛力的發(fā)掘,個人目標(biāo)的實現(xiàn)及個人利益的追求,信奉至上。在美國,人和人之間多為利益關(guān)系,表現(xiàn)出人情比較冷漠,非常重視個人利益和自由,個人自我意識很強。
2.思維方式的差異
思維方式是產(chǎn)物,受到生產(chǎn)方式、歷史傳統(tǒng)、思想及語言等方面的綜合影響。受不同文化背景制約中美兩國人有不同的思維方式。中國人喜愛綜合性思維,注重整體優(yōu)先,使用從整體到部分的思維方式,例如表達(dá)順序時,先從大地方再到小地方,既國家、省、市、區(qū)、街、號;時間也是按照年月日的順序表達(dá)。美國人則喜愛分析性思維,注重部分優(yōu)先,在空間表達(dá)順勢與中國剛好相反,先從小地方再到大地方,時間也是從小到大。
3.風(fēng)俗習(xí)慣的差異
在社會風(fēng)俗習(xí)慣方面,中國和美國也存在著很大的文化差別。就拿中美文化對待不同動物的見解為例,在很多中國習(xí)慣語言中,“狗”是貶義詞,例如:“狐朋狗友”“狼心狗肺”“狗仗人勢”等等;然而在美國文化中則截然相反,他們認(rèn)為狗是人類最好的朋友,這種見解也表現(xiàn)在習(xí)慣用語中,例如“You are a lucky dog”意思就是你真幸運。類似的,在談及“貓頭鷹”也是一樣,習(xí)慣用語中有這樣一句話“as wise as an owl”,表明在美國文化中把它當(dāng)作智慧的體現(xiàn);但是,在中國文化中,對待它的態(tài)度卻是完全不同,由于貓頭鷹長得很難看,聲音叫起來又很難聽,所以古時候的人稱其為“惡嗚”,說聽見貓頭鷹叫不吉利,直到現(xiàn)在還留下了“夜貓子進(jìn)宅,無事不來”的迷信傳說。
4.宗教信仰的差異
宗教信仰也是中國和美國文化差別的重要組成因素,佛教傳人在中國的2000多年里,其思想在中國人心中已經(jīng)根深蒂固。更深深地滲透在中國文化中,對中國的詞匯產(chǎn)生了不可忽視的作用;其中很大一部分成語都是與佛教有關(guān)的,比如“救人一命勝造七級浮屠”“不看僧面看佛面”“半路出家”“道高一尺魔高一丈”等等,這些詞語如果僅僅從字面上來翻譯的話,會讓美國人無法理解。同樣,作為美國的第一大宗教,基督教也深刻地深入到了美國文化中,“絕大多數(shù)美國人相信的是猶太教和基督教所共有的上帝”,“1991年蓋洛普民意現(xiàn)實,有一半的美國人相信上帝大約是在一萬年前創(chuàng)造出了人類。”所以,在美國文化中,“上帝”(God)這個詞替代了“佛”在中國的意義,一些習(xí)慣性用語和諺語也和這個上帝有關(guān),例如“God sends fortune to fools”,“God bless you”!
5.非語言交際的差異
中國和美國非語言交際也有很大的差別。首先,在中國,我們不常用肢體動作來表示人與人之間的關(guān)系好,比如擁抱、親吻。但是在美國文化中,父母與兒女間,兄弟姐妹間,好友之間,從小到大都是以擁抱和親吻的方式來表達(dá)。其次,在美國,當(dāng)人們相互談話時,相互凝視著對方的眼睛是一件非常重要的事。有句話說“Never trust person who can’t look you in the eyes”。但是在中國卻不同,甚至一些中國人為了表達(dá)他們的謙遜或者尊敬,故意避免凝視著對方的眼睛。再次,中美兩國人民關(guān)于各自的空間距離都有著不同的要求。大多數(shù)美國人在談話時都不愿意挨得太緊,總要保持一定的距離,例如:在公交車、電梯或者火車上,中國人能忍受相互不認(rèn)識的人擠在一起,而美國人卻無法容忍這樣的身體接觸。因此,對于個人空間的要求上,中國人比美國人小得多。而且,文化差別也表現(xiàn)在學(xué)校里,中國學(xué)生上課通常必須站起來回答老師的問題以表示尊重,而美國學(xué)生則一般都坐著。
參考文獻(xiàn)
[1]王海巍.文化價值觀在中美會話風(fēng)格中的體現(xiàn)[D].吉林大學(xué),2006年
[2]楊富坤.淺析當(dāng)代中美文化表象差異的表現(xiàn)及其原因[J].企業(yè)技術(shù)開發(fā),2009年08期
熱門標(biāo)簽
茶文化論文 茶文化科普 茶文化發(fā)展 茶文化技術(shù) 茶文化 茶文化語言 茶文化淵源 茶文化健康 茶文化傳統(tǒng)文化 茶文化遺產(chǎn) 心理培訓(xùn) 人文科學(xué)概論